Biodegradable Polymers: Processes of Degradation

Biodegradable Polymers: Processes of Degradation Introduction The ISO definition of a biodegradable polymer is â€Å"an irreversible process leading to a significant change of the structure of a material, typically characterized by a loss of properties (e.g. integrity, molecular weight, structure or mechanical strength) and/or fragmentation. Degradation is affected by environmental conditions and proceeds over a period of time comprising one or more steps† Biodegradable and compostable processes are essentially the same mechanism of how materials irreversibly breakdown into their fundamental composition, CO2, H2O, CH4 and other low-molecular weight products. The major difference is on how they go about the decomposition, biodegradation occurs naturally where microorganisms metabolise the material, where as composting takes place under strict conditions rate of degradation and the end product is non-toxic. The process of composting will also be affected by the size of the particles, large pieces may not be compostable but shreds of the same material may be compostable. Materials can also be composted at homes and the end product used in gardening, but some materials may not compostable at home and may require an industrial process. Biodegradable and compostable polymers should not be confused with biopolymers, which are naturally occurring polymers that readily degrade in the environment, starch, cellulose, proteins are a few examples of biopolymers, while the former are polymers engineered to degrade in the environment through one or more mechanisms of degradation. The degradation of a polymer should into consideration the other mechanisms of material degradation (oxidation, hydrolysis, photo-degradation, thermal-degradation) which can affect the polymer before or during the biodegradation process, or maybe the only mechanism acting on the polymer [ 41.wang ]. As more people are becoming more eco-conscious and aware of global warming, although not directly responsible, more effort is put into discovering new sustainable plastics and better manufacturability of these degradable polymers. History and why bioplastics? The first polymers, or plastics as it generally known, recorded in history were produced by The Horners Company in London [BPF site] which used horn and tortoiseshell as the predominant early natural plastic in the year 1284. But it is in the early 18th century that the plastic industry started to build up its momentum, it is during the period Alexander Parkes invented the first plastic in the 1850s [makingthemodernworld]. Today polymers are the most widely used material playing in an important role in civil construction to human wellbeing. A pair in Germany were awarded the patent to their invention of Casein Plastic as the first bioplastic derived from milk, but it was in 1990 that ICI Ltd launched the first commercially available biodegradable plastic. With the world consumption of plastics increasing to 100 million tonnes annually , from 5 million tonnes in the 1950s,[M.Avella] and growing at a rate of 4% annually. They can only be recycled or dumped into a landfill, which are becoming scarce [J_H_Song] , and with more governments of the developed world taking advantage of the developing world, where they send their nations waste to be disposed to and where it cannot be dealt efficiently due to the lack of proper facilites. What goes into the landfills cannot be controlled and the mixture of waste releases toxic agents from the more volatile waste, and gases, most notably methane from the other degradable waste, into the atmosphere which would be difficult to capture it everywhere, which is utilised in the U.K. Total solid waste in the EU is 520 Kg/year per person of which 10%-15% is plastics, more than 50 Kg, of which 40% is sent to landfills [mooney brian p] which is about 10 million tonnes, with the EU population at 0.5 billion [eurostat]. Recycling polythene carrier bags rather than producing new plastic has many environmental benefits such as: Reducing energy consumption by almost 67% Produces 33% of sulphur dioxide and 50% of nitrous oxide uses almost 90% less water Emits almost 250% less carbon dioxide One of the most important factors that it saves 1.8 million tonnes of oil for one tonne of polythene recycled. [wasteonline] Not accounting for the total carbon footprint of the process. But recycling is not very efficient process compared to producing new materials, every time plastic is recycled it loses about 10% of it mass, [green plastics] reducing the mass of the material to 73% of its original after only 3 recycles. The current proven world crude oil reserves of about a total of 1,342 billions of barrels[eia.doe.gov, no title], is estimated to run out by 2040[imeche] at current rate of consumption, though there are critics who would oppose these figures, therefore even more urgency in developing sustainable biodegradable polymers by then is required with the population doubling. How they are made? Biodegradable polymers can be based on a variety of environmentally sustainable materials, or a combination of different biomass, and also from bacteria. The most basic material that is used is starch which is abundantly available, large quantities present in corn and potatoes but also all vegetables, and at a low price. Cellulose is another commonly and easily accessible material that is being used to produce bioplastics. Certain oil based polymers have a degree of biodegradability too, polymers such as polycarbonate, polyhydroxybutyrate and poly vinyl alcohol [ BrodyMarsh ] or other biomaterials added to make it biodegradable though it may not be possible for the polymer to degrade 100%. Not all biodegradable polymers are derived from biomaterials or oil some can be synthesised, Aliphatic polyesters [ mulch films ]. Starch Starch molecules are polymers of Glucose molecules, where all the sugars are oriented in the same direction, as shown in the diagram below. Starch is made up of two types of molecules amylose and amylopectin, depending on the type of the plant starch can contain upto 25% amylose and 80% amylopectin [Poon, introduction to organic]. Starch granules diameter are averagely in the range 5-40  µm, depending on the source, they are not suitable in the plastic industry as they are difficult to process during extrusion and injection moulding. Starch therefore has to be processed, physically and chemically, before it can be used as thermoplastic starch, TPS, which usually includes heating it up in the presence of water to form a gelatinous material, but may require further treatment as this type of TPS is not moisture resistant [ 36/41.wang ]. To ensure that polymers were degraded in the environment after their service life starch was mixed with a range of polymers, such as polyethylene [ 50 Ke.Ty ], but because these class of polymers contain non-degradable polymers which will not be degraded, and cannot be seen, they cannot be called biodegradable polymers. Thermoplastics starch are therefore mixed with vinyl alcohol to create composites that tend to be more stable, but reducing the starch content in the thermoplastic polymer composite will reduce the biodegradability of the polymer[37]. TPS mixed with other biodegradable polymers ensure a 100% rate of degradation, which is not the case as mentioned when mixed with other polymers. TPS are mixed with synthetic polymers such as poly-(lactic acids) (PLA), poly(glycolic acids) (PGA) etc. [50,ke.ty] PLA blended with starch can reduce the costs of the polymer in addition to greatly reducing its rate of degradation, the raw materials of PLA is produced by fermenting carbohydrates from renewable sources, such as corn [50]. Cellulose Cellulose is a type of polysaccharide, a carbohydrate, found in plant cell walls and the most abundant organic material on earth, 40% of all organic matter [ green plastics ], it is produced by plants by natural photosynthesis from CO2 and water, at an annual rate of 200 billion tonnes, of which 6 billion tonnes are used [ 45.simon.J ] . Cellulose is similar to starch with the main difference being the molecular arrangement, in starch the molecules are highly branched and in cellulose the molecules are linear. Due to the arrangement molecular structure of cellulose, it cannot be processed into a thermoplastic but has to be converted to derivatives e.g esters and ethers to reduce the intermolecular forces for molecular flow to occur under heat and shearing conditions, unlike processing starch it does not require moisture [ thermoplastic starch ]. Attempts to produce polymers from cellulose, like polymers from starch, during past half a century were discouraged by textbooks expressing that because cellulose has a rigid backbone it cannot be converted to a polymeric material [ 54.yoshioka]. The figure shows various polymer derivatives from starch and cellulose, with the hydrogen in the starch molecules replaced by the R groups to form different polymers [ 14.second grn rev ]. Nitrocellulose, a highly explosive material, for instance is produced by reacting cellulose with a nitrating acid, mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids, and with alcohol or a plasticizer, such as camphor to make it more flexible and mouldable, added to stabilise the process [ 40.azom ]. Cellulose acetate is one of the more important and used cellulose derived biodegradable polymers, usually prepared from high grade cellulose, obtained from fast growing tress or cotton linters [ 53.alexander ]. It is commonly prepared by synthesising raw cellulose acetic acid followed by acetic anhydride in the presence of sulphuric acid, which acts as a catalyst, producing primary cellulose acetate, known as cellulose triacetate. The triacetate can then be formed into a solution, using methylene chloride as a solvent, which can then be dry-spun to form fibres, to produce cellulose diacetate. Finally cellulose diacetate can be dissolved, acetone as a solvent, to form fibres known as cellulose acetate [ britannica ]. All three groups of cellulose acetate are similar, what differentiates them is the percentage of hydroxyl groups that are acetylated, according to the Federal Trade Commission, of America, 92% of hydroxyl groups must have acetylated to refer it as a cellulose acetate, els e the generally referred to it as cellulose triacetate [ 52.rulesreg] . To produce a process-able polymer the cellulose acetate particles is mixed with a liquid additive, mixing thoroughly using a high speed mixer resulting into fine grained powder and extruded to form granules. Processing parameters that apply are 20-30D screw-type mixer, temperature range 160-190  °C and pre-drying for 2 hours at 70 °C. These granules can then be subjected to standard thermoplastic processing techniques [ 53.alexander ]. Lignin is another second most abundant component of woody plants, 20% of all organic material [green plastics], which is not yet used to its full potential, small amount used in various industries. There are new methods being developed to produce lignocellulosic biomass. Proteins There is not a huge amount of information available on biodegradable polymers derived from proteins. One reason may be that plants do not contain a high amount of proteins to be efficient enough to produce polymers, such as 100 grams of corn contains only 3.22 grams of proteins but 19.02 grams of carbohydrates, almost 6 times as much. Soybean the highest protein containing 36 grams of protein and almost as much carbohydrates, but yielding only 50% of the crop per unit area when compared to maize [ 61.lobell ]. Protein just like starch and cellulose can be regarded as a polymer made up of chains of various amino acids. Proteins from various crops have been used to produce polymers, especially zein and gluten, produced in maize and wheat respectively. Zein-gluten composite polymer can be produced by having wheat gluten coated with zein, [ 62.kim,sanghoon ] . The process does not require extrusion processes or high temperature, but only requires of zein to be purified. Kim Sanghoon describes a relatively simple method of producing a protein based biodegradable polymer, from gluten, zein, ethanol and distilled water, and compressed in an aluminium mould. Other methods of producing protein based polymers include using wood fibres mixed with gluten is plasticized using glycerol, water and ethanol, and extrusion moulded,[ 65.Wu.Qiangxian ] unlike the Sanghoon method. Sources of proteins used to produce biodegradable polymers include feather-meal, waste animal proteins [60.feathermeal], soy bean [ 58.nanda], egg white [ 39. Egg white ]. Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers Biodegradable polymers can be synthesised in lab, but because the costs involved the materials are further mixed with a natural polymer, usually starch, as it is abundant and cheaply available or a cellulose derived polymer. A few of the synthetic biodegradable polymers to name are polyglycolide (PGA), polylactides (PLA) (also known as Poly (lactic acid)), polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA). Synthetic polymers can generally offer greater advantages compared to naturally derived polymer, as they can be engineered to have the desirable properties, and have more consistency, unlike naturally derived polymers they do not depend on the source of the raw material which can influence the properties and quality of the final polymer. Aliphatic polyesters are the most widely and commercially used synthetic polymers available, a few are named above, other polymers that have emerged in the market are polyester containing aromatic moieties. The synthetic biodegradable polymers may be classified into three groups, but the literature will only review polyesters Polyesters Polymers containing both esters and other heteroatom-containing linkages in the main chains Polymers with heteroatom-containing linkages other than ester linkages in the main chain Biodegradable polyesters can be synthesised in a number of ways Polycondensation reaction diols and dicarboxylic acids Self-polycondensation of hydroxyacids Ring opening polymerisation Of the above three processes polycondensation, also known as step-growth polymerisation, and ring opening polymerisation are more widely. Some polyesters synthesised by polycondensation are Poly (lactic acid), Poly (glycolic acid), Polycaprolactone. The process involves the monomers of the two raw material reacting to progressively form long chain polymers, as the secondary name suggests. One disadvantage of the process is that the water production from the reaction must be continuously removed, leading to lengthy reaction times and producing varying chain length polymers. [ reviewed by 75.RaySmith/ 73. Okada ] Poly (lactic acid), a linear aliphatic polyester, based on lactic acid, which can be produced by fermenting carbohydrates or by chemical method. Lactic acid contains both the hydroxyl and carboxyl groups needed for polycondensation, but requires removal of water, by azeotropic distillation, as mentioned, to avoid poor yield, further production methods of various aliphatic polyesters is provided M. Bhattacharya.[ by Bhattacharya p337 in 75.RaySmith ] Ring opening polymerisation is a form of addition polymerisation, where cyclic monomers join a reactive centre (terminal end of a polymer),a range of anionic, cationic and coordinative initiators/catalyst are mentioned in scientific literature, to form long chain polymers though ionic propagation. [R Jerome p77 reviewed by 75.RaySmith]. Ring opening polymerisation is advantageous than polycondensation such that it takes place in milder reaction conditions and there are no side reactions, giving a more controlled end product [ 73.okada ], one of the most used polymers in the market Nylon 6 is produced using this process. The ring-opening polymerisation can be initiated by many organometallic derivatives of metals such as Al, Sn, Y, Nd, Yb, Sm etc, which have d-orbitals of favourable energy, metal alkoxides, e.g. aluminium alkoxides, tin alkoxides, may acts as typical initiators. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are a class of biodegradable polymer, polyesters , produced by using bacteria, e.g. Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Ralstonia etc, especially members of the Halobactereicae, as the production centre. The PHA is synthesised within the bacteria that functions as an energy storing water-insoluble compound in the cytoplasm of the bacteria cell[80.anderson]. Bacteria that do not produce PHA can be modified to produce them, e.g. cloning PHA operon, nucleotide sequences of DNA that control the production of PHA, into E. Coli bacteria allows the production of PHA by the bacteria. PHA are then produced by the bacteria when it supplied with source of high carbon content, like glucose under nutrient-limiting conditions. The described way producing is considerably more expensive than oil based polymers there have been suggestions of using products from the food industry as a feedstock for the bacteria to produce PHA, malt waste from a brewery is one of the suggestions, where b acteria produced upto 70% polymer, of dry cell weight (DCW). [82. Yu.Peter] Recent research groups have been forced to find alternate methods of producing PHA, due to the costs involved in the conventional method, and have been experimenting successfully with transgenic plants, where the only raw materials required would be CO2, for carbon, and sunlight. Other areas that have attracted research to produce polymers of the PHA family are the cyanobacteria, that produce the P(3HB) by oxygenic photosynthesis, but their yield rates are very small compared to the conventional method.Synechococcus MA19, a unicellular thermopile, can store upto 55% DCW. [reviewed by 78. philip] Rubber Rubber is an elastomer and a polymer of isoprene, it can be synthesised or be derived from the Brazilian rubber tree, Hervea Brasiliensis, from which most natural rubber is derived, but unlike the name suggest, over 95% of natural rubber in 2008 was produced in Asia, mostly south Asia, but synthetic rubber still makes a greater portion of the market, 56% of the world supplied with synthetic rubber. Rubber like material was developed based on thermal polymerization epoxidized soybean oil (ESO) with triethlyene glycol diamine (TGD), which produce a polymer behaving as a rubber-like elastomer [reviewd in 107.soybean]. Another method to produce natural rubber is by using PHA, which is obtained from bacteria as described, which will therefore be completely biodegradable. The PHA surface is however hydrophobic making it difficult for the microorganisms to inhabit on the surface an degrade, hence its increasing its shelf life significantly, but still be degradable in a composting environment. [109.rubber bacteria] Properties and Enhancements The most important property for all biodegradable polymers, or degradable polymers, is that are completely degradable into basic components, CO2 CH4 and H2O , including any other organic compound, by the means of microbial attack, or any other naturally occurring process for the polymers that classified as degradable by other means. Properties of biodegradable material should be separated into three categories, the naturally derived polymers, synthetic polymers and the composite of these polymers. Naturally Derived polymers TPS shows excellent degradability and composting ability in the soil, partly due to the water solubility of starch. It also has a good oxygen barrier and is not electrostatically chargeable [ 7.Lorcks ]. Unmodified starch polymer have poor processability and mechanical properties, compared to the other polymers available, but plasticising the starch, by addition of water, can assist in processing of the starch, and treating it at a certain temperature would transform the starch into TPS, which show thermoplastic behaviour and properties. As seen in Figure the pure form of TPS has the least period of degradation, but treating it with other biodegradable polymer to enhance its properties increases the time it takes to completely degrade. Cellulose in water-insoluble and like starch fully degradable, and composed of D-gylcopyranoside units, but unlike starch, linked by ÃŽ ±-(1-4) bonds, it is linked by ÃŽ ²-(1-4) bonds. The molecular arrangement of cellulose, explained previously, and the bond type contributes to the longer periods it takes to degrade, which is transferred to the polymer it is based on. Cellulose will readily decompose on heating, therefore cannot be heated to process, but is synthesised into cellulose acetate which like starch shows properties and characteristics of a thermoplastic, but the time it takes to degrade is reduced as the cellulose content of the polymer is reduced. Cellulose and starch the two of most used and abundant organic compounds having similar properties, except the time to full degradation, both have the characteristic of their glass transition temperature and melting temperature being close to their decomposition temperature. M. Gaspar [83.reduce water absoption] conducted experiments to examine and improve water absorption in starch based polymers. The experiment contains four specimens of TPS, TPS w/Cellulose, TPS w/hemicelluloses, TPS/polycaprolactone and TPS w/zein each composite having the same proportion, by weight, of the additive. The results showed that TPS w/zein had the highest tensile strength Youngs modulus and TPS w/cellulose the lowest tensile strength and TPS w/polycaprolactone the lowest Youngs modulus. The table shows a few of the mechanical properties of the polymers described above, noting that the 2 different types of starch have significantly differently poreprties. Film type Test condition Tensile strength (MPa) Elongation at break (%) Water vapor permeability (gmm/m2daykPa) Reference Cassava starch 25 °C 75% RH 9.0-17.0 9.0-28.0 [86] Corn starch 25 °C 75% RH 3.8-4.3 4.0-10.0 [86] Low density polyethylene 38 °C 90% RH 7.6-17.3 500.0 0.08 [88] High density polyethylene 38 °C 90% RH 17.3-34.6 300.0 0.02 [88] Cellulose acetate 38 °C 90% RH 48.5-82.7 15.0-45.0 [88] Polyester 38 °C 90% RH 178.0 70.0-100.0 [88] Cellophane 38 °C 90/0% RH 7.27 [89] PLA is a synthetic biodegradable polymer, that is brittle and has poor impact strength, leading to failure of the material by cracking and tearing, and therefore preventing a more widespread use of the polymer in the packaging industry. Another PLA property is its natural yellow tint, which again is a factor that prevents it uses in the packaging industry, which leads to poor presentation of a consumer product. PLA is therefore blended with other biodegradable polymers (to keep it 100% biodegradable) to improve the properties that are most desirable. Usually is PLA mixed with plasticizers such as pole-ÃŽ µ-caprolactone, poly (vinyl acetate), starch, poly(hydroxyl butyrate), providing the PLA with more ductility, but having a negative effect on the tensile strength[91 to 99]. The brittleness of PLA can be counter acted by mixing it with a plasticiser, which also reduces the already low glass transition temperature further reducing its end product applications.[100 101] F.Byrne [90] tested PLA mixed various available masterbatches, commercially available polymer additives, to check the enhancements, and the results are as in table, of them all PLA dcS511-Ice clear appears to be the best option for an additive as it removes the tint from the material. Table Thermal, mechanical, optical and surface properties of PLA and PLA/masterbatch blends Properties determined Units PLA Biomax Strong PLA dcS511 PLA dcS515-N PLA dcS511-Ice clear Glass transition temperature oC 59 59 59 58 58 Melting temperature oC 150 150 151 150 151 Crystallinity % 9 0 5 7 4 Tensile strength MPa 68 66 67 66 64 Tensile modulus MPa 2.3 2.0 1.9 2.0 2.1 Impact strength N 90 390 90 90 90 Shore D hardness 69D 59D 64D 69D 64D Haze % 19.5 67.9 20.6 13.5 10.9 Yellowness index 7.2 10.0 5.8 10.8 0 Another method of improving the properties of polymers is by producing polymers, an example can be of PLA matrix with natural fibres which may include plasticizers, but still remain completely biodegradable. An experiment included using polypropylene (PP) and PLA matrix, including PLA with plasticizer, with flax fibres. The pure PLA had better mechanical properties than the pure PP, and reduced tensile strength as composites. The results showed the PLA with 30 wt.% flax fibre are a 50% stronger than similar composites made from PP, another study [104 sisal] used sisal fibre in a PLA/Starch composite but resulted in poor mechanical properties. PLA/triacetin, plasticizer, composite with flax fibre reduced the strength of the composite but made it more ductile, effect of the plastizer. PP/flax fibre of 30 wt.% are commonly used in industrial applications that has an elongation to break of 2.7% with a tensile strength of 29MPa, even though fibres greatly increased the PLA strength its ductility was reduced to successfully replace the PP composite a suitable fibre could be researched or PLA/15wt.%Triacetin with elongation to break 2.6% and tensile strength 37.2MPa could be used. When using natural fibres in a polymer matrix composite the inconsistency of natural fibres length and properties must be considered, therefore using synthetic biodegradable fibres, cellulosic origins, an even quality can be obtained[105.herrmann]. Degradation Oil based plastics are resistant to biodegradation, and most other forms of degradation, as the micro organisms responsible for the degradation of these polymers are unable to consume it, mainly due the impenetrable oil based matrix which are they are made from and the surface in contact with the soil is smooth [reviewed in 113 p,p,future] . Another class of polymers are the partially degradable are oil based polymers composites with a easily degradable fibre, e.g. starch, which breakdown as the microorganisms attack the starch and leave the oil based polymer particles behind, which degrade at a much slower rate, but unnoticeable because of the size. Complete degradation of a material occurs through various mechanisms, by microorganisms, light, water etc. Biodegradation can be generally be classified into two categories aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation, where the final products of each of the degradation are CO2, H20 and biomass of aerobic and CO2, CH4 and biomass of anaerobic. CPolymer + O2 à   CO2 + H2O + CResidue + C Based biomass Generally in plastics the amorphous region is more vulnerable to degradation by hydrolysis, as water is easily penetrated into this region. The degradation can be classified into surface degradation and bulk degradation, where surface degradation occurs when the degrading agents are not able to penetrate into the bulk layer of the material and act only on the material surface. Spherulites may be visible on the material undergoing surface degradation. It must be noted that materials in the environment may not be degraded by one specific mode of degradation but a combination of different mechanisms, so it would be sensible to consider degradation of a polymer in the soil to have two mechanisms of degradation acting on it, biodegradation and hydrolytic degradation, and photo-degradation if it is exposed to sunlight. Degradation can be considered to occur in two phases, disintegration and mineralization. The disintegration of polymers may occur through hydrolytic degradation, photo-degradation or thermal-degradation by exoenzymes, mediated or not [114. scott]. The hydrolytic degradation is most likely to occur and have a greater role in the process of the biodegradation of the polymer, the figure below shows the subdivisions of hydrolysis. The mineralization takes place when the microorganisms start to metabolize the disintegrated polymer particles and convert them to common inherent digestion products [6 Krzan]. Natural rubber exists in the environment the various microorganisms required to metabolise the polymer are already widely distributed in the environment. The process starts by the oxidation at the double bond of the polymer chain, leading to the formation of carbonyl, peroxide or epoxide groups. The microorganisms secrete a rubber degrading extracellular enzyme, which in a sense start a chain reaction, as lower-molecular weight fractions are further metabolised by the microorganisms. An industrial scale degradation

The Mormon Religion - The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints :: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

The Mormon Religion - The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, true? Not true? Christians? Not Christians? These are some of the questions people ask about the Mormon church. How did the Mormon church start? Joseph Smith Jr. was born in 1805 in Sharon, Windsor County, Vermont, to Joseph and Lucy Mack Smith. He had 10 brothers and sisters. His parents taught him to pray, read the Bible, and to have faith in God. At age 14, Joseph saw God the Father and His Son, Jesus Christ, in his First Vision. At age 17, Joseph began to receive heavenly messengers who prepared him for his role in the Restoration of the Church of Jesus Christ to the earth. He was a prophet, just like those in biblical times. The First Vision As a boy, Joseph Smith was surrounded by various churches which each claimed to teach the truth. This caused him much serious reflection. He wanted to know which church was right. One day he read a passage in the Bible which says, â€Å"If any of you lack wisdom, let him ask of God, that giveth to all men liberally, and upbraideth not; and it shall be given him† (James 1:5). Joseph decided to accept the invitation to ask God.(James 1:5) 5 aIf†¢ any of you lack bwisdom, let him ask of God, that cgiveth to all men liberally, and dupbraideth†¢ not; and it shall be given him. In the spring of 1820, Joseph went to a grove of trees near his home and prayed to learn which church he should join. In answer to his prayer, Heavenly Father and His Son, Jesus Christ, appeared to him. Joseph wrote: â€Å"When the light rested upon me I saw two Personages, whose brightness and glory defy all description, standing above me in the air. One of them spake unto me, calling me by name and said, pointing to the other—This is My Beloved Son. Hear Him!† Joseph was told to join none of the churches that existed at that time. Joseph’s written account of this event is a powerful testimony of what he saw and experienced. Joseph’s written account After I had retired to the place where I had previously designed to go, having looked around me, and finding myself alone, I kneeled down and began to offer up the desires of my heart to God. I had scarcely done so, I saw a pillar of clight†¢ exactly over my head, above the brightness of the dsun†¢, which descended gradually until it fell upon me.

Historical Background and Status

Historical background and status of textile engineering industry By: S. Chakrabarty Preamble Industrial Revolution in U. K. during 1750 – 1850 gave birth to Textile Machinery. The dominance of India in the field of cotton textiles produced by very skilled manpower was disturbing the British. Systematic development of textile industry with spinning and powerloom machinery was initiated in Lancashire and Manchester to discourage the Indian weavers. Rest is however known to everybody how the machinery industry was developed and nurtured by the respective Governments in the UK and later by Germany and Switzerland followed by others in Europe.In India, machinery manufacture started in the 50s, continued and progressed during 60s & 70s and thereafter. The Government policy to ban expansion of the organized weaving sector during late 60s created/ supported the decentralized powerloom sector. Too much of importance to handlooms and low level technology power looms in the subsequent ye ars, keeping a large list of reserved items for handlooms, throttled the mill industry which lost its initiative for creativity as well as production for the masses. Low level of production in handlooms and low quality production in powerlooms made us uncompetitive in the subsequent years.The Government’s regulative pressures on the Mill Industry continued to play havoc for the weaving industry till the introduction of 1985 Textile Policy and finally revolutionary Industrial Policy in 1991. Development and technology growth in the TEI The Textile Engineering Industry (TEI) during the late 60s, 70s and 80s had received some Government support in the form of foreign collaboration approvals, import assistance by way of phased manufacturing programme and concessional customs duty certification for imported parts and components for manufacture of specified textile machinery.Import duty on components and parts in general was very high at 85% excluding CVD and not conducive for indi genous development. The concessional duty on imported parts, components etc. mentioned above did help the Industry. The then Government’s policy was also supportive that no import of machinery was allowed if there was adequate indigenous production. The local textile industry therefore had no choice but to buy the Indian machinery. This policy helped the TEI to develop and manufacture spinning machinery in the country of the desired quality and quantity. There was no competition from outsider.Internal competition among various players made the development easier and faster. Foreign manufacturers had no choice but to enter into collaborations with local manufacturers. This happened not only in spinning but also in processing machinery. The following collaborations are worth mentioning: Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Names of Foreign Collaborators M/s. Textile Machinery Makers Ltd. U. K. , Platt Bros. , U. K. M/s. Whitin Machine Works, U. S. A. M/s. Howa, Japan M/s. Zinser, Germany M/ s. Marzoli, Italy M/s. Hispani Suiza (Suisse) S. A. , Switzerland M/s. Rieter, Switzerland M/s. Schubert & Salzer, Germany Names of IndianManufacturers M/s. National Machinery Mfrs. Ltd. , Bombay* M/s. M M C. , Calcutta M/s. Texmaco, Calcutta* M/s. Texmaco, Calcutta* M/s. M M C, Bangalore* M/s. Indequip Engineering Ltd. , Ahmedabad M/s. LMW, Coimbatore M/s. New Standard Engg. Items Produced Spinning – Cards, Draw Frame, Speed Frame, Ring Frame Spinning – Carding Engines and RH Can Fed Inter Frames Spinning – Flat Revolving Carding Engines, Draw Frame, Speed Frames Spinning – Narrow Gauge Ring Frame Spinning – Entire Range Spinning – Ring Frame Spinning – Entire range Spinning – Blow Room, Cards, 9. M/s. Zinser, Germany M/s. Trutzschler, Germany M/s. Toyota, Japan 10 11 2 M/s. Suessen, Germany * Presently not in operation Co. Ltd. , Mumbai* M/s. Padmatex Engg. , Baroda* M/s. Trumac, Ahmedabad M/s. Kirloskar Toyoda Textile Machin ery Pvt. Ltd. , Bangalore M/s. Suessen Asia, Pune Draw Frames Spinning – H. S. Draw Frame Spinning – Blow Room, Cards, Draw Frames Spinning – Ring Frame Spinning – Ring Frame Due to acute and long recession in the Textile Industry, initial higher import content coupled with high rate of import duty, non-transfer of latest technology under collaboration agreements leading to import of machinery etc. , the following Indian Companies were closed down during 80s and early 90s.These are M/s. MMC, Kolkata and Bangalore; M/s. Texmaco, Kolkata; M/s. Indequip Engineering, Ahmedabad; M/s. New Standard Engg. Co. Ltd. , Mumbai; M/s. Mafatlal Engg. Co. Ltd. Mumbai; M/s. Textool Co. Ltd. , Coimbatore; M/s. Jeetstex Engg. Ltd. Coimbatore etc. while M/s. LMW, M/s. Trumac, M/s. Zinser India, M/s. Suessen Asia, M/s. Kirloskar Toyoda could manage to stay in production. Why we are better in spinning machinery? There was Government support by way of†¢ †¢ †¢ Res tricted import of spinning machinery – virtually no import of spinning machinery of the same technology available indigenously was allowed.No import of second hand spinning machinery was allowed. Import duty concession on raw materials, parts, components & accessories for production of specified machinery as the import duty in general, was very high. Besides, competition among the machinery manufacturers resulted in production of better quality machines. Reasons for non-development in the Weaving Machinery Sector While the Textile Engineering Industry took up manufacturing of Spinning machinery in full swing with the adequate Government's supportive measures mentioned above, the same did not happen in case of weaving machinery.During 60s (prior to 1970) the Industrial Policy prohibited the organized mill sector to expand their weaving capacity. This was perhaps to support employment generation in the villages by the decentralized and dispersed handloom sector. It was due to t his wrong policy, the unauthorized powerloom clusters started gaining grounds. Even many of the handloom clusters started converting into powerlooms. Since the domestic demand for fabrics was growing fast due to the population growth, the powerloom sector in different parts of the country started growing fast while the handloom sector started shrinking in reality. The fact is still not accepted by the Government). Today, there are over 20 lakh powerlooms but handlooms, may not be more than 8 lakh, if not less! During 70s the organized mill sector was allowed to replace ordinary powerlooms by automatic looms and shuttleless looms on 4:1 basis. However, compulsory manufacture of controlled cloth by the mills sector dampened the spirit of the mills sector. Controlled cloth scheme was done away with during 80s. Expectation of a good demand due to replacement policy prompted the manufacture of automatic looms by M/s.Cimmco, Gwalior in collaboration with M/s. Sakamoto, Japan and M/s. Mafa tlal Engineering Co. in collaboration with M/s. Ruti, Switzerland during 70s. In the late 70s M/s. Lakshmi Automatic Loom Works Ltd. (LALW) started manufacturing Ruti `C’ Type of automatic loom in collaboration with M/s. Ruti, Switzerland. M/s. Cimmco as well as M/s. Mafatlal Engineering Co. tried to manufacture shuttleless looms in collaboration with M/s. Dornier, Germany, Toyoda, Japan and M/s. SACM, France respectively during early 80s. M/s. LALW also started making shuttleless rapier and airjet looms during 80s.During 80s, the powerloom population which was hardly 7 lakh had grown to more than 10 lakhs. The policy of scrapping of powerlooms of the mill industry after replacement or closure failed miserably, all these powerlooms found their way to the decentralized sector. The Government had no option but to regularize all unauthorised powerlooms due to political pressure after announcement of 1985 Textile Policy and subsequent Textile Control Order 1986, doing away with t he age old powerloom permit system. The textile strike during 1980s crippled the Textile mill industry in Mumbai and Maharashtra.During this period the composite structure of the mill industry broke almost completely. While the spinning sector prospered with the modern machinery, the number of working looms in the organized mills sector shrunk considerably and most of the mills found it profitable to close down their weaving section due to bad market condition, high cost of labour, low productivity and tough competition from the powerloom sector. As a result, there was practically no demand for the shuttleless looms manufactured by the two Companies mentioned above which prompted them to close down their shutters one by one.In the meantime, due to the pressure from the decentralized powerloom sector the Government was forced to allow import of second hand weaving machinery which added to the woes of indigenous manufacturers of shuttleless looms. M/s. LALW also had to discontinue the production of shuttleless looms subsequently. During 80s and upto 1991 there was protective market for spinning and processing machinery but not for the weaving machinery due to high production cost and import of second hand looms. Initiatives discouraged after liberalizationThe Industrial Policy announced in 1991 liberalised the Industry in general to a considerable extent. The market became open to the foreign manufacturers and there was tough competition. The spinning machinery makers came of age technologywise and capacitywise and there was also very high demand for spinning machinery. The weaving machinery could not prosper due to the onslaught of import of second hand machinery. There was no restriction on import of second hand weaving machinery before and after 1991. After 1992, there was no support of the Government either for development of weaving machinery or any other textile machinery.In this regard, the only commendable fact was that we became self-sufficient in Weavi ng Preparatory Machinery viz. High Speed Sectional Warping, Direct Warping and Sizing matching with world class technology. M/s. Rabatex Industries, Ahmedabad; M/s. Prashant Gamatex Pvt. Ltd. , Ahmedabad, M/s. Amritlakshmi Machine Works, Mumbai and M/s. Jupiter Engineering Co. , Ahmedabad are the most reputed domestic manufacturers. This could happen because there was less import of second hand machinery and the cost differential between domestic and imported machinery was large and the machines were custom built.The indigenous shuttleless looms (older technology) which have been developed during the late 90s and early 2000, however, could not find a good market due to the adverse policy of the Government i. e. import of second hand shuttleless looms under concessional duty and also under concessional rate of interest under TUF. The situation continues. However, indigenous machinery manufacturers viz. M/s. Aalidhra Weavetech Pvt. Ltd. , Surat; M/s. Bhavin Sales Corporation, Surat; M /s. Dynamic Loom Mfg. Co. , Ahmedabad; M/s. Dinkier Sokerjee Machines, Surat; M/s. Friends Engg.Works, Panipat; M/s. Himson Textile Engg. Inds. Pvt. Ld. ; Surat; M/s. Industrial Engg. Works, Bangalore; M/s. Lakshmi Automatic Loom Works Ltd. , Coimbatore; M/s. Laxmi Textile Stores, Ahmedabad; M/s. Lifebond Machines Pvt. Ltd. , Surat etc. have developed and are producing crank beat up type shuttleless looms with a speed between 450 – 500 mpm. All latest generation shuttleless looms i. e. Airjet, Waterjet, Projectile & Rapier of European and Japanese origin are high speed, high tech, high productive and energy efficient running at a speed of 500 rpm and above.This machinery, though at a higher cost, is economically viable due to its quality and productivity, cost of fabric per meter being less than second hand machinery. Since last 4/5 years, all new large textile units as well as existing reputed textile units expanding capacity had been importing these kinds of machinery to ma ke them commercially viable, e. g. Alok Industries, Welspun, GHCL, Vardhman Group, Century, Raymonds, etc. Therefore, machinery, if made/developed indigenously need to be cost competitive in all respects and cost of production per meter of fabric should be same or less with equivalent quality standard.Then only the manufacturing would be viable and accepted by the Mill Industry/ Organized Sector. Unless there are disincentives for second hand machinery, there is no hope that the decentralized powerloom sector would go in for new machinery. Processing & Finishing Machinery Sector The history of the processing machinery manufacturing sector was somewhat different. During 70s and 80s there were a number of foreign collaborations : M/s. Mather & Platt, U. K. M/s. Reggiani, Italy M/s. Stork, Holland M/s. Gerber, M/s. Menzel and M/s. Eduard Kusters, GermanyMather & Platt (I) Ltd. * SBM Engg. * ATE (Stovec/Stormac*) Calico Indl. Engineers* M/s. Artos & Benninger, Germany M/s. Famatex, Germ any M/s. Obermeaier, Germany M/s. Toshin Kogyo, Japan * Presently not in operation T. Maneklal* Famatex India Ltd. * Dalal Engg. Star Indl. Engg. * Some Companies developed machinery by copying the imported technology viz. M/s. Harish Textile Engineers, M/s. SM Engg. etc. As mentioned earlier, composite structure of the textile industry broke in Europe during 70s. The same happened in India during 80s. This affected the processing sector.While spinning industry became more organized, competitive and export- worthy, the weaving and processing sectors became uncompetitive, decentralized and export unworthy. Since the Government encouraged low technology for the weaving sector (handlooms and ordinary powerlooms), the organized weaving sector in the mill industry could not come up. Similarly, the decentralized processing sector, which started with second hand machinery from the composite mill industry, did not modernize the units in course of time. The domestic manufacturers which had o llaboration prior to 1991 could not continue with their collaborators after 1991 as the market became open and the foreign manufacturers found it easier to market their machines in India rather than making the same under collaboration. During 80s as well as 90s strenuous efforts were put in by some of the Companies to develop machinery by way of re-engineering. Some of them became successful. However, some of the Companies had to close down their shutters due to tough competition in the open market after 1991. Many manufacturing units came into existence to produce low technology cheap machinery to bridge the gap between demand and supply.This had resulted in manufacture of poor quality machines and poor quality processing of textiles thereof. The encouragement given by the Government to the hand processing sector was misused and low technology prevailed. The prominent processing machinery makers who developed quality machines during 80s and 90s were: 1. M/s. Calico Indl. Engineers, Mumbai* 2. M/s. Dalal Engg. Pvt. Ltd. , Mumbai 3. M/s. Devrekha Engineers, Surat 4. M/s. Harish Textile Engineers Ltd. , Mumbai 5. M/s. Mather & Platt (I) Ltd. , Mumbai* 6. M/s. Primatex Machinery Ltd. , Mumbai* 7. M/s. SLM Maneklal Ind. Ltd. , Mumbai* 8. M/s.SM Energy & Electronics, Mumbai 9. M/s. Standard Fabricators (I) Pvt. Ltd. , Mumbai 10. M/s. Stovec Industries Ltd. , Ahmedabad 11. M/s. Texprint Engineers Pvt. Ltd. , Ahmedabad * Presently not in operation In the latter half of 90s again saw acute demand recession from the Textile Industry which continued upto 2002. During this period the Textile Engineering Industry started looking beyond the domestic demand. Export which was never more than Rs. 100 crore until 1988-89 started increasing and reached the level of Rs. 406 crore during 2002-03. There were exports of spinning as well as processing machinery.Some of the manufacturers could compete with the European manufacturers in processing machinery abroad with their high qual ity machines. Improved Demand The demand for textile machinery started picking up slowly after 2002 as the Technology Upgradation Fund Scheme became popular by then. The Textile Industry was also expecting a better market after the st liberalized Quota Free Regime under WTO from 1 January, 2005. Major demand for machinery started after 2004 which has prompted the Textile Engineering Industry to increase its production from the level of Rs. ,341 crore during 2003-04 to Rs. 2,780 crore during 2006-07. However, this happened mainly in spinning machinery and weaving preparatory machinery and to some extent in weaving and processing machinery. The weaving and processing machinery sectors though increased their capacity to a considerable extent, has a long way to go. The processing sector started competing with foreign manufacturers since 1991 though sporadically. They have improved their technology and their machines are now capable of producing fault free processed fabrics in short as w ell as continuous lots.The domestic demand for such machinery has also increased. M/s. Dhall Enterprises & Engineers Pvt. Ltd. , Ahmedabad, M/s. Harish Enterprises Pvt. Ltd. , Mumbai, M/s. Tex-Fab Engineers (India) Pvt. Ltd. , Navi Mumbai produced continuous dyeing plants with latest technology for long length of fabric processing which are running successfully in the mills. The following manufacturers have exported their processing machines and earned a good name: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. M/s. Dalal Engineering Pvt. Ltd. , Mumbai M/s. Devrekha Exports (Bhagyarekha Engineers Pvt. Ltd. ), Surat M/s.Dhall Enterprises & Engineers Pvt. Ltd. , Ahmedabad M/s. Harish Enterprise Pvt. Ltd. , Mumbai M/s. Kusters Calico Machinery (P) Ltd. , Vadodara M/s. Lakshmi Card Clothing Mfg. Co. Pvt. Ltd. , Coimbatore M/s. Yamuna Machine Works Pvt. Ltd. , Mumbai These manufacturers are in a position to make many high quality processing machines and compete with foreign manufacturers. Knitting/Hosiery Machine ry Knitting/Hosiery Industry as well as Garment Industry was reserved for the small scale sector. Both these sectors thrived initially with imported second hand machinery.Both Woven Garment and Hosiery Garment put together the total export of the country was only Rs. 5 crore during 1970-71. The exports increased to Rs. 500 crore in 1980 and today it is above Rs. 17,000 crore, thanks to the removal of quota shackles under WTO, implemented by the Government couple of years back. Decentralised character of the Garment industry did not enthuse the TEI to take up the manufacture of knitting machinery. As such this sector remained neglected altogether. Some efforts were made to manufacture knitting machinery by two Companies viz. M/s.Lakshmi Automatic Loom Works Ltd. , Coimbatore and M/s. Himson Textile Engineering Industries Pvt. Ltd. , Surat in late 80s. However, after liberalization of the Industrial Policy in 1991, imported machines became cheaper technology wise than the Indian machi nes due to which obviously there was no demand. Therefore, manufacture of knitting machinery had to be discontinued. Testing & Monitoring Equipments Sector As regards the Testing & Monitoring equipments are concerned, the textile industry was dependent on imported testing and monitoring equipments in 60s and early 70s.The Textile Engineering Industry started developing such testing & monitoring equipments in the late 70s and today all kinds of high quality latest generation testing and monitoring equipments are being manufactured in the country. Some of the items are: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Air Jet Weaving Machine Controller Centralised Computerised Operation of Group of dyeing Machines with Dyeing Data Management Software Package Fully Automatic High Volume Fibre Tester for Length, Strength, Micronaire, Colour, Trash and Maturity module Multi-Channel Pre-Set Yarn Length Indicator & Controller for Winding/Texturising/TFO Machines with Software PackageYarn Evenness T ester Some names of the Companies manufacturing different categories of such instruments are under:†¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Paramount Instruments Pvt. Ltd. Pioneer Instruments & Innovations Premier Evolvics Pvt. Ltd. Semitronik Instruments Tex Lab Industries Thymas Electronic Pvt. Ltd. Growth of the Parts & Accessories Sector The growth of the textile industry along the length and breadth of the country initiated the manufacture of parts and accessories for their machinery. Today, barring a few critical items of equipments and accessories lmost all kinds of parts and accessories of high quality are manufactured in the country. The number of such manufacturers could be around 800. Some of the important items manufactured here are: Blow Room beaters, card clothing, cross-roll attachment for cards, top rollers for high speed draw frame, flyers for speed frames, rings, spindles, inserts, cots and aprons and variable drives for ring frame, production of monitoring data in spinning and weaving online quality checking systems, cloth guides, web straighteners in processing, etc. etc.The TEI not only fulfills the demand for spares from the domestic textile industry but also exports its products to Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Far East, Europe, America and other countries as well. The following table shows data on production of Textile Machinery Parts & Accessories during the last 15 years: Year 1985-86 1990-91 1999-2000 2004-05 2006-07 Rs. in Crores 83. 43 208. 59 288. 79 276. 44 339. 68 Synthetic Yarn and Fabric Processing Machinery Sector Synthetic weaving sector of the textile industry which was scattered in different parts of the country in early 70s became localized in Surat, Bhiwandi, Belgaum.During 80s and 90s the synthetic sector was dominantly established in and around Surat, Gujarat. This simultaneously necessitated the development of synthetic yarn and fabric processing machinery. As a result the Textile Engineering Industry located in and around Surat and Mumbai developed draw texturising machines, draw twisters, two-for-one twisters for filament yarn, zero-twist filament sizing machines, rewinders, precision cone winding machines, etc. etc. More successful manufacturers are M/s. Himson Textile Engineering Industries Pvt. Ltd. , M/s. Aalidhra Textile Engineers Pvt. Ltd. Meera Industries, etc. The synthetic mechanical processing machinery was being imported during 70s and 80s. However, with the development of such machinery indigenously, we are not only catering to the domestic demand but also exporting the same. More and more developments are taking place due to the demand for such machinery. Conclusion Thus the Textile Engineering Industry could develop all types of textile machinery except garment machinery, high speed sophisticated knitting machinery, high speed shuttleless loom (rapier and air jet) and some of the latest generation processing and finishing machinery.The reasons for not developing these mac hinery have been categorically explained in the foregoing paras. What the TEI expects and aspires Under the above background it is felt that there is a real need to develop and manufacture all kinds of textile machinery in the country as per the existing and expected demand. Government should encourage these efforts and should come forward to help this Rs. 3,000- 4,000-crore capacity industry in a comprehensive and systematic manner with short and long term policy measures. It should take note of the developments of textile machinery made by China during the last 10 years.What China did? 1. Forced the foreign manufacturers to start manufacturing their brands in China by not allowing the import of machines from abroad. 2. Financed the domestic manufacturers for setting up the complete plants with large capacities. 3. No second hand machinery import 4. Incentives given for replacement of old machinery with new machinery. Incidentally, it may be mentioned that China had 6 lakhs ordinar y powerlooms/automatic looms prior to 2002. Today, they have shuttleless looms (2, 50, 000 to 3,00,000 approx. ). There may be few ordinary powerlooms in villages and automatic shuttle looms in some corners.No estimate of such looms is available. They have installed large machinery manufacturing capacities and are also exporting all kinds of textile machinery at a cheaper price. Therefore, the following measures are needed to improve the present condition of the Indian TEI A) Policy Measures †¢ †¢ Scheme for Modernisation, technology upgradation and productivity advancement of the Textile Engineering Industry (TEI). The interest remission under the scheme should be 5% with one time 10% Capital Subsidy over & above interest remission (Similar Schemes are available for the Textile Industry).Scheme to support Research & Development. o o †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Suitable capital grants and annual recurring grants for the existing R Centre at IIT, Powai, Mumbai. Suitable capital grants for the R Institutions located at Surat, Ahmedabad, Coimbatore, Delhi, Panipat and Ludhiana willing to take up R for textile machinery. Capital grant for indigenous development of machinery to the new projects as well as existing projects which got delayed due to lack of funds. Tax break/holiday for the manufacture of High Speed Shuttlelesss Looms/High-tech processing and finishing machinery for a period of five years.To allow import of complete sophisticated machinery in CKD/ SKD condition at concessional rate of import duty for a minimum period of three years without any restrictions for manufacturing textile machinery under collaboration/joint venture/import of designs and drawings or by way of reengineering. Ban import of machinery where similar technology machines are available indigenously e. g. shuttleless rapier loom â€Å"crank beat-up type†, water jet Looms (800 rpm) etc. Import of textile machinery in second hand condition sh ould not be allowed under the Technology Upgradation Fund Scheme/20% CLCS Scheme.Ban on import of second hand shuttleless looms with weft insertion rate less than 800 mtrs. per minute. Revival of TIFAC scheme for development of textile machinery with 90% loan component and softer rate of interest of 3%. B) Fiscal Measures †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Reduction of excise duty from 14% to 8% Excise duty on parts, components and accessories of the machines be reduced to 8%. Maintaining the floor level customs duty on textile machinery at 7. 5% without any exemptions Uniform rate of customs duty for complete machinery and raw materials, parts, components & accessoriesUniform treatment to the domestic suppliers of machinery to EPCG license holders. 150% weighted Income Tax deduction for R expenditure made by the Textile Engineering units. If the above measures are taken seriously, the TEI aspires to make available modern machinery and equipment both in quantum and qual ity to meet the future needs of the textile industry at short delivery periods coupled with effective and prompt after-sales-service. About the Author: The author is the Secretary of The Textile Machinery Manufactures Association.

10 Facts on Martin Luther King for a Speech

10 Facts on Martin Luther King for a Speech If you are writing a speech about Martin Luther King, Jr., you will need some facts to include into your text. Below are ten great items which will help you in your writing: Martin Luther King, Sr., devoted his life to correcting injustices. This way of living was something passed down to his son who preached not just about Civil Rights, but about equality. His confrontations against segregation began in January 1935, when he organized a protest against the segregated courthouse elevators in his home town. Eight months after that he tried to get African Americans registered to vote. In 1939, Martin Luther King, Sr. had his famous march to the city hall in Atlanta. This march was accompanied by several hundred other supports, all of whom were attempting to demonstrate to current leadership the political strength within African Americans. Martin Luther King, Jr. followed in the beliefs of his father that people across the entire nation could use their vote to bring real change to laws. Martin Luther King, Jr. held great admiration for the ministers in Atlanta and his father, all of whom spoke up for civil rights. It was this obsession, this reverence of language and the power of words which enticed Martin Luther King, Jr. He had attended school where he would eventually gain entrance to college and become ordained as a minister. He was able to stir the minds and hearts of those who listened to him. With a degree in sociology and a passion for religion, Martin Luther King, Jr. started to fight the justice and inequality with the same power and strength that his father had used before him. Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X appeared about this same time fighting for justice and racial equality. As a minister, he incorporated teachings of Ghandi and advocated nonviolent methods of protest. He led the March on Washington in 1963 which was a very large political rally where over 300,000 people marched and there were 200,000 police officers. The march was congregated around jobs and economic freedom. It was here that Martin Luther King, Jr. delivered his famous speech entitled, â€Å"I Have a Dream†. In 1954 Brown v. Board of Education had taken place and declared that state-sponsored segregation in schools was against the constitution. King had been embarrassed by his first march in Memphis which ended in violence. It was here that he pledged to return to rectify the situation he had left. His reasoning for returning was due to a mental change in race to economics. He needed to change his civil rights movement focus to include economics and this required a return to Memphis. Legislative headway was made by the federal government with initiatives that included the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968. Leaders from within the African American community that became well known during the Civil Rights era for their efforts included Rosa Parks, Martin Luther King, Jr., Malcolm X and many others. The most effective leader to emerge from the boycott movement was Martin Luther King, Jr. who had not only understood the much larger significance of the boycott but also realized that blacks living in the south could make strides through the use of nonviolent tactics. This movement in Montgomery eventually led to the development of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, a clergy-led organization with King serving as president, in 1957. Within three years a wave of sit-ins were taking place to spur the end of segregation at lunch counters in the south. Such protests spread rapidly throughout the South and eventually lead to the founding of the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee in 1960. His speech the day he was assassinated concerned the strike by Memphis Sanitation. Changing his focus to economics, King spoke about economic actions, boycotts, nonviolent protest, and unity. He cited the book of Exodus, the parable of the Good Samaritan, teachings of Jesus, and the prophet Amos. He referred to death threats near the end, saying that they didn’t matter because he was on a mountain top and didn’t mind. He stated he had no fear and had seen the Promised Land and that, as a people, they will get the Promised Land. He ended the speech with the first line of the Battle Hymn of the Republic. The assassinations of Martin Luther King and Malcolm X along with significant government repression as well as the infighting that occurred in the black militant community resulted in a decline of protest activity following the 1960s. Even so, a permanent effect was left on society in America as a result of the Civil Rights Movement. Overt forms of discrimination and segregation finally came to an end while anti-black violence in the South declined as well. In communities where blacks had once been forbidden to vote, black candidates were elected to political offices. American democracy had been transformed by the modern African-American civil rights movement, much in the same way as similar movements had previously altered the country. The method of non-violent protest was also widely used during the mid-20th century by civil rights activists. In this case, the philosophy of non-violence was typically rooted heavily in religion. In order to be successful, a non-violent protest required the support of most of the black population as well as active participation by that population. Therefore, a successful protest required the active support of church leaders. When activists in Montgomery wanted to organize a bus boycott, it was their ministers they turned to for support and leadership. It was their actions, under the leadership of Martin Luther King, that would set the tone for the future peaceful civil rights protests that would shape the decade and finally bring about change. In his reform efforts, King often talked about self-sacrifice and love. Such non-violent protests were inspired by King’s visit to India, which solidified his belief in the power of massive non-violent resistance. In the early to mid-1960s, the use of both bodies and lives became one of the most prevalent forms of protest. These facts should get you up the speed with all the needed information for your potential speech. You will find a lot of great additional intel for a speech in our 20 topics and 1 sample essay on Martin Luther King and also our in-depth guide on speech writing one on your own. References: Autobiography Of Martin Luther King Jr.. London: IPM in association with Little Brown and Co., 1999. Print. King, Martin Luther, and Alex Ayres.  The Wisdom Of Martin Luther King, Jr.. New York, N.Y., U.S.A.: Meridian, 1993. Print. King, Martin Luther, and Clayborne Carson.  The Autobiography Of Martin Luther King, Jr.. New York: Intellectual Properties Management in association with Warner Books, 1998. Print. King, Martin Luther, and Coretta Scott King.  The Words Of Martin Luther King, Jr.. New York: Newmarket Press, 1983. Print. King, Martin Luther, and James Melvin Washington.  A Testament Of Hope. San Francisco: Harper Row, 1986. Print. King, Martin Luther, Clayborne Carson, and Kris Shepard.  A Call To Conscience. New York: IPM (Intellectual Properties Management), in association with Warner Books, 2001. Print. King, Martin Luther, Clayborne Carson, and Ralph E Luker.  Called To Serve. Berkeley, Calif. [u.a.]: Univ. of California Press, 1992. Print. King, Martin Luther.  Stride Toward Freedom. Print.

Cash transfer and In

Cash transfer and In Cash transfer refers to payments of money made directly to eligible poor people, by state or federal government. This is done with an aim of reducing poverty through introduction of conditions towards the receiver. Only people who meet certain criteria benefit from the government money transfer and this ensures that ineligible people do not get the money. Cash transfer has significant benefit to people who might be enrolling children into public schools, receiving vaccinations, as well as undergoing regular medical check-ups.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Cash transfer and In-Kind transfer specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Social contracts play a major role of transferring money from the government directly to poor families (Paglin Wood, 147). This provides the extremely poor families with cash to deal with emergencies, promoting long-term investments in human capital from paying the poor families to making good d ecisions. This means that the families ranking the poorest of the poor receive the cash and in return they send their children to school as well as exercising medical check-ups in clinics. In addition, through the Conditional Cash Transfer, there is enhancement of efficient human capita development within the family structure through discouragement of misguided beliefs which lead to inefficient decisions, such as sending only the boy-child to school. However, provision of cash transfer to improve school attendance has been criticized that it does not ensure higher academic performance and on the other hand, in terms of overall public health, mixed results are the major outcomes. This is a demonstration of lack a clear focus on the main target because bringing children to schools and clinics only provides a half solution as there is no guarantee for effective performance of these institutions (Paglin Wood, 147). On the other hand, in-kind transfer entails transfer of payments made b y governments and institutions to individuals in kind aimed at promoting their well-being. This is aimed at improving people’s living standards through provision of their necessities such as food and providing poor people with public housing, providing education through offering free schools, improving employment chances and free health services among others. Unlike cash transfer, in-kind transfer ensures that the aim of the government is achieved through provision of the goals rather than a mean of attaining those goals. The argument is that, where free services- for example education- are provided, more effective outcomes are achieved as mishandling of the money is avoided. In addition, in-kind transfer provides open field for expansion to needy people, such as employment chances which might be difficult to realize even with appropriate qualifications (Mankiw, 53). However, restrictions and lack of personal decisions accompanies this kind of transfer. Provision of free educ ation restricts people in choosing the school they would like or would prefer to attend. According to critics against in-kind transfer, provision of tuition vouchers or sums of money equivalent to the education, health or housing offered would give people an opportunity to choose their best (Mankiw, 53).Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In a case study of food and money transfer in Bangladesh, wheat and rice transfer, (both to poor household and for education), and cash transfer were provided to the people. Food transfer showed much more consumption of the food than in cases where cash transfer was employed. To those groups that participated in money transfer, only fifty percent was recorded to have been used in food consumption, unlike total food consumption on the groups where food transfer was exercised. However on the second period of transfer, the house holds that received food transfer on the previous exercise was on average poorer that the others, with 95 per cent of consumption and per capital expenditure while the other households had 85 per cent of the same ((Paglin Wood, 211). Though the consumption is evidently higher in in-kind transfer, providing of cash transfer in my country can be more appropriate. In-kind transfer increases consumption due to unavailable of multiple choices but cash transfer will give people opportunity to not only decide on what to chose but also on how to use. In conclusion, cash and in-kind transfer are welfare systems that have benefited persons in countries where they are practiced, such as the United State. Both have contributed to improvement of people’s welfare as well as human capital. However some constrain within their operation do hinder their maximum effectiveness in meeting their goals. This is so because when they focus on perfecting one side of people’s life, other systems affe cts their efficiency on the other side. The cash transfer offers people an opportunity of choosing as they determine what school, clinic and food to use. On the other side, maximum consumption of transfer is realized where in-kind transfer is employed though people’s choice is limited. Mankiw, Gregory N. Principles of microeconomics. Neerijnen, Elsevier, 1998. Print. Paglin, Morton Wood Gerald. Poverty and transfers in-kind: a re-evaluation of poverty in the United States. NY, Hoover Press, 1980. 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Holistic - Concept Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Holistic - Concept Analysis - Essay Example The American Holistic Nurses’ Association (AHNA), 1994, explains health as â€Å"the maintenance of harmony and balance among body, mind, and spirit† (White, 2005, p.32). Through a process of continuous adaptation, the body endeavors to achieve balance or stability termed as ‘homeostasis’ among these factors. Internal physiological homeostasis is a balance of the body’s fluids. It is crucial for nurses to understand how the combining of all aspects of a person’s life help clients through healing processes. Thesis Statement: The purpose of this paper to undertake a concept analysis of the term ‘holistic’ through an integrated literature review, by identifying the attributes of the concept, and by illustrating the concept through a model case with supporting rationale. The Concept of ‘Holistic’ The holistic approach involves the whole picture. The Merriam-Webster (2011) dictionary defines holistic as concerned with whol es or complete systems rather than with the analysis, treatment, or separation into parts. Thus, holistic medicine relates to the treatment of both mind and body, while holistic ecology views humans and the environment as a single system. Further, the complete wholeness of something is much greater than the total sum of its component parts, and cannot be explained by examining each of its separate parts (Encyclo, 2011). The use of a holistic approach to treatment is gradually being used in combination with mainstream methods of patient care. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) established the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) to examine holistic modalities of treatment and patient care. According to the National Institutes of Health, holistic care takes into consideration the whole person â€Å"including physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual aspects† (White, 2005, p.32). The main purpose of examining holistic care is to facilitate the integration of validated therapies into general patient care. The nurse using the holistic approach enables the patient to attain the optimal state for healing to take place. Further, as an instrument of healing, the holistic nurse healer facilitates the patient’s growth towards wholeness of mind, body and spirit. Holistic nursing calls for â€Å"deeper levels of commitment, compassion, love, and caring† (Dossey & Keegan, 2009, p.xv). According to Guzzetta (1998), holistic nursing is composed of caring, spiritualit, synchronicity, expanded consciousness, culture, environment and several other factors. Holistic care aims to heal the whole person using art and science to activate the innate healing potential within individuals, thus empowering the patient (Dunning, 2009). The Attributes that Define the Concept of ‘Holistic’ The holistic means of patient care that are used in nursing include biofeedback, exercise and movement, goal-setting, humor and laughte r, imagery, journaling, massage, play therapy, prayer, and therapeutic touch (White, 2005). The holistic model of nursing also has other attributes including a search for patterns and causes instead of treatment of symptoms of any disease; patient care is integrated and related to the entire patient, rather than specialized care. The emphasis is on human values rather than on efficiency (Dossey, 1997). Further, the nurse’s caring forms an essential component of healing; pain and disease are considered to be valuable signals of

Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 124

Summary - Essay Example The banker contradicts the peasant’s judgment on the state, he or she judges the government based on a future goal that it works towards realizing. Economics manipulates and dictate the political behavior. Administrations lose supporters in seasons of hard times while a massive gain of the supporters seen in good times. The two models involving both retrospective and prospective of the index of consumer sentiment as contradicting variables between economic conditions and approval, it is found out that the probable component adequately accounts for the presidential approval time series. The next article voting successfully addresses an average voter as one who falls far short of the prescriptions of classic autonomous hypothesis in terms of interest, facts, and participation in politics. The authors suggest a more realistic standard involving the citizens fulfilling their democratic duties by voting correctly. Five decades of behavioral research in political science reveals that only a tiny marginal of the citizens in any democracy live up to the lines and goals of democracy. Interests in politics become generally weak, political discussions limited and political knowledge is diminishing. The result leads to the majority of American citizens not participating actively in politics beyond voting. The determination of voters on their correct vote choices can be predicted reasonably well using the widely available survey data. The authors illustrate how the prediction can help in determining the proportion of the voters voting correctly, which they calculate at about 7 5 percent for the five US presidential elections between 1972 and 1988. The third article is a decisive study of voting in America and talks about the American voter. Michigan model is a theory formulated on voter choice. Based on all-inclusive studies of election study data in America, most voters cast their ballots