Concepts of Inerrancy and Infallibility in the Bible

Thesis Statement:Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Concepts of Inerrancy and Infallibility in the Bible specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More â€Å"Should the Concepts of Inerrancy and Infallibility in the Bible be utilized as Sufficient Justifications of the Legitimacy of Religious Positions on Social Issues?† Introduction It is quite interesting to note that studies such as those by Sherkat (2011) have indicated that an increasingly large amount of religious sermons, statements of faith, and a wide assortment of other such text related to the affirmation of the Catholic faith in God have increasingly utilized the inerrancy and infallibility of the Bible as a method of legitimizing their claims to faith and justifying their views.1 This is not to say that such ideas are without merit, given the supposedly divine origins of the Bible, however, scholars such as Beale (2011) have stated that utilizing the Bible as the justification for one’s faith and views is in itself highly flawed2. Beale (2011) explains this by stating that even if the Bible is inerrant and infallible the fact remains that faith should be an internal development based on a continuing relationship with God which is supported by the scripture within the Bible, not the other way round wherein scripture is utilized as a means of legitimizing faith. Other scholars such as Smith (2012) question the concepts of inerrancy and infallibility attributed to the Bible given the archaic nature of several scriptures and their general inapplicability to modern day situations3. What you have to understand is that in order to explain the origin of the Bible, the terms inerrancy and infallibility are often utilized interchangeably due to their ability to point out that Bible is far different to any other book that has been written thus far given its historical and religious significance as the word of God.Advertising L ooking for research paper on religion theology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Yet, it must be questioned whether such terms should be considered interchangeable given their markedly different meaning and utilization by both the church and religious scholars. First and foremost the term infallible, when utilized in the context of holy scripture such as the Bible, can be defined as transcending concepts related to sin, spiritual or material flaws as well as the deceptions of its writers and the method by which it was communicated to others (i.e. through print, digital text, etc.). In laymen’s terms this means that when the Bible, through the Holy Spirit, describes various aspects related to the good news of Christ such as the vision, purpose and character of God in relation to his design for humanity, is in effect doing so through a transcendental effect that goes straight to the character of the Bible and its message of sa lvation. Inerrant, on the other hand, when defined once more within the context of the Bible, relates to the scriptures within the Bible always being right when carrying out their intended purpose of showing who God is, his vision and purpose for humanity and stating the good news of salvation through Christ4. It is based on this that despite the obvious chronological disparity between the present day and the time in which the bible was written, the content of the scriptures should not be disregarded as if they were a mistake, rather they should be considered as fully applicable guides to current believers regarding the true and righteous path that God had meant for us to follow5. Despite such obvious deviations in meaning and content, inerrancy and infallibility still continue to be used interchangeable to this day. On the other hand, it must be questioned whether the concepts of inerrancy and infallibility can truly be applied to the Bible. This is based on the widely known fact t hat the bible as we know of it today is a combination of select scriptures by the council of Nicaea (325 AD) and as such excludes certain scriptures that could have similarly had the distinction of being considered inerrant and infallible.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Concepts of Inerrancy and Infallibility in the Bible specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Considering that the inerrant and infallible nature of the Bible is based on its divine origins, the fact that the there are some text that are intentionally excluded creates a sufficient amount of reasoning to assume that the Bible is not as inerrant and infallible as it would seem given that it can be deemed as incomplete. It is based on this that it must be asked should the concepts of inerrancy and infallibility in the Bible be utilized as sufficient justifications of the legitimacy of religious positions on social issues? Religious Positions on So cial Issues Religious positions on social issues encapsulate a wide variety of instances such as gay marriage, stem cell research, the death penalty, divorce and other such issues that have ethical and moral underpinnings. It is usually the case that religious positions on such issues often result in positive or negative effects depending on the inherent intent of the religious group involved. For example, due to the advocacy of various religious groups stem cell research has in effect been halted in the U.S. and in other countries around the world due to idea that continuing along this path of research is unethical according the views of God in the Bible involving the sanctity of life. The delay in the social and governmental acceptance of gay marriage in the U.S. and in other countries as well is also a manifestation of the actions of religious groups over their interpretation of the Bible and how this results in their aversion to actions that have been distinctly stated as  "abhorrent† within a variety of scriptures. When examining such issues it can be seen that position of religious on a variety of social issues is connected to interpretations based on the Bible with the inherent justification behind its use being related to its infallibility and inerrant nature.Advertising Looking for research paper on religion theology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As explained by the article â€Å"The Evolution of the Debate (2012), various religious groups justify their arguments on social issues based on a literal and single minded interpretation of the Bible without sufficiently thinking if such a point of view is actually applicable to the present day circumstances6. This is due to the fact that they believe that the infallible and inerrant nature of the bible deems their actions as justifiable given that they are supposedly in accordance with the will of God. It is this way of thinking that calls into considerable whether utilizing the supposed inerrant and infallible nature of the bible actually creates a justifiably legitimate position by various religious groups on social issues7. This calls into question whether the utilizing the bible as a means of arguing against the use of stem cell research, gay marriage and other such issues is truly valid. Ethos and the Use of Inerrancy and Infallibility in the Bible as Methods of Justificatio n What must be understood is that Ethos refers to the way in which a person portrays themselves in an argument, in a sense it is a method in which persuaders present an â€Å"image† to people that they are attempting to convince. This particular â€Å"image† refers to a persuaders â€Å"character† in the sense that a person is attempting to persuade another person of the righteousness of their statements based on their inherent character. In the case of the various religious groups this takes the form of them attempting to convince other people of the righteousness of their cause on the basis of the image that they are portraying, namely, that the inerrant and infallible nature of the Bible justifies their arguments against a variety of social issues. It is this argument on the basis of a projected image that is a cause for concern since basing it on a projected image alone does not justify the action itself8. For example, a person may argue for the righteousnes s of a cause on the basis of their knowledge of the event yet this attempt at persuasion may in itself be self-serving for the person that is attempting to persuade other individuals. An examination of the motivations behind the use of ethos by various religious organizations reveals that many of their bible based interpretations utilizing the inerrancy and infallibility as a method of justification actually originate from a self-serving nature. Ethos in effect justifies their actions under the basis of a righteous cause yet in the end is more beneficial to them than to other individuals. In the case of ethos what must be understood is that it is â€Å"artifice†, meaning that is created, manufactured, made, constructed etc. It can be considered a type of surface image which may in fact have an entirely fictitious relationship to what is actually true9. For example, a teacher could show up in class one day wearing cowboy boots, a ten gallon hat and long sleeved t-shirt with a large image of a cactus on the front, the next day he can wear an average suit and tie while the day after that he could wear a Scottish kilt, bagpipes and one of those patterned hats. The reason I mention it is due to the fact that despite the different outfits he wears the person and the ideas that are being presented have not changed at all, however, what is changed is the perception of the audience regarding the idea being presented. The same can be said for ethos wherein the method in which the idea is â€Å"packaged† drastically changes the perception of the audience towards accepting the idea itself or the validity of its statements. In the case of the ethos of various religious groups it can be seen that when boiled down to its very essence it is merely a statement which says the following: â€Å"believe in what I say since it is based on inerrant an infallible scripture†. It is in the way that it is packaged and presented to the public that changes the percept ion of the public to the idea that is being presented. What the public sees as an argument based on an ineffable and infallible scripture is in essence is a statement allowing to do whatever they want. Inerrancy and Religious Positioning Inerrancy is based on the concept that what is present is not false and affirms the truth whether it is religious, scientific or physical in nature. What you have to understand though is that the Bible being inerrant does not mean that the interpretations of the Bible that manifest itself through religious doctrine, are sufficiently inerrant themselves. For example, the current church doctrine which is specifically against the advancement of stem cell research is based off the supposedly inerrant notion of the right to life within the bible. Since stem cells are at times derived from zygotes which are incomplete versions of a proto-human fetus their use in medical research is considered to be an abhorrent violation of the right to life as indicated by the bible. It must also be noted that the concept of bible ambiguity can be considered a serious problem when it comes to religious positioning based on inerrancy since passages from the bible can be interpreted in a multitude of possible ways. For example, The Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood through their interpretation of the bible specifically state that the roles of men and women should be differentiated to specific roles within the family with no degree of overlap. As a result of this, leadership positions within the family as well as in businesses, organizations and even in government institutions under the council’s view should be exclusively isolated to men alone. On the other hand, the religious group â€Å"Christians for Biblical Equality† interpret the bible under the context of men and women being equals and possessing the ability to have the same rights and roles. This type of variant interpretation has manifested itself into the creation of n umerous church groups such as the Westborough Baptist Church, the Living Church of God and other such radical segments of Christianity that state that their interpretation of the Bible makes them the â€Å"true† church of God. Given that such groups have teachings that are considered â€Å"abnormal† even by the main orthodoxy of the Catholic Church is clear evidence that religious positions on social issues based on the inerrancy of the bible is unjustifiable given the different ways in which statements within it can be adjusted in such a way that they can actually promote hate. One of the best examples of this can be seen in the numerous instances where the Westborough Baptist Church has openly picketed in numerous areas openly stating their hatred for gays, the fact that soldiers who died in Iraq for their country are going to hell and that God does not have a place in heaven for individuals that support concepts outside of their acknowledged religious orthodoxies. F rom a certain perspective it can even be stated that the interpretation of the inerrancy of the Bible in the case of the West Borough Baptist church is one that actually promotes hate and bigotry, which were aspects that Jesus was clearly against during his time on Earth. Other interpretations based on the inerrant nature of the bible take the form of religious groups within the Philippines which has the largest Catholic community in Asia. Religious groups such as â€Å"Iglesia ni Christo† do not believe in venerating Mary based on their own interpretation of the Bible. Other groups such as the Born Again Christians do not even believe in the concept of saints which is similarly based on their belief in their own interpretation of the inerrant nature of the scripture of the Bible. As it can be seen, interpretations of the bible can be utilized to justify a whole gamut of possible manifestations whether religious or social in nature. Can the Bible be Considered Infallible? The premise of the infallibility of the bible is based on the fact that it was created as a direct action of divine intervention wherein the Holy Spirit inspired the original writers of the text to create the scriptures that we know of in the present. As such, it is considered by many religious scholars as the word of God that has been imparted to all of us as a message of love, peace and the affirmation of our faith and our destiny as God’s children. From the point of view of Grass (2007), the Bible is only considered infallible within the context of the Catholic faith given that other religions have their own versions of religious text which they similarly consider infallible (the Qur’an being a prime example of this)10. Grass (2007), points out though that the infallibility of the bible at the present is often taken out of context regarding its original purpose. The bible was meant as a means of guiding people to interact with their fellow man, to establish peaceful re lations within society and to create a culture that values love, sharing and the development of social bonds that would discourage violent actions. Thus, as a guide, it has indeed served its purpose given that biblical text has helped to inspire society towards a more â€Å"humane† way of interaction. Yet, as Galli (2011) is quick to point out, the bible was never meant as a means of dictating every aspect in relation to how society was meant to operate11. What you have to understand is that the â€Å"timelessness† that is attributed to the infallibility of the Bible is connected to its nature of ethical actions within social relationships. This means that aspects related to governance, development of technologies, conservation, environmentalism and other such topics which are at the forefront of modern day debates are not specifically included in the bible for the reason that it was never meant to encapsulate such aspects in the first place. Hylton (2011) goes on to s tate that it was only when religious institutions started interpreting the various scriptures within the bible based on its inherent inerrancy that the current problems related to religious interference in social issues started12. It based on this that it can be stated that the infallibility attributed to the bible when it comes to religious positions on social issues is unfounded given that what is stated within is taken out of context. It must be noted though several studies which have examined current teachings within religious institutions reveal that many religious orders have started to teach students that facts contained within the Bible pertaining to specific scientific or historical events which do not have an impact on their concept of faith and the Christian practice of religious devotion, may in fact contain considerable errors. This is in direct opposition to other groups who state that everything within the Bible should be considered as incontrovertible fact. What you have to understand is that despite the statements of a multitude of religious scholars, the Bible was in fact created in order to conform to ancient beliefs and practices. This means that the story of genesis, marriage to children and even the stoning of women that cheat on their husbands were all manifestations of practices at the time and as such reflected themselves accordingly into the different scriptures. In an era of modern science and greater social conscious involving ethical marriage practices and commensurate methods of punishment, the examples presented within the Bible can no longer be considered wholly accurate, and various religious groups have started to also acknowledge this as well. It is based on this that the inerrancy of the Bible as an entirely accurate source of information is doubted and as such is the basis behind an argument against the use of the concept of the infallibility of the Bible as a sufficient justification of the legitimacy of religious position s on social issues. Justification of Position Based on Inerrancy Inerrancy is based on the concept of there being no errors whatsoever within a given piece of text. Aside from grammatical errors brought about by issues in translation, the bible supposedly has no errors and is thus the pivotal text often utilized to justify religious positions. This has been seen in numerous instances throughout history such as the debate in stem cell research within the U.S., the removal of the death penalty within several Catholic oriented states within Europe as well as the Republic Health Bill within the Philippines which focuses on the introduction of sexual education classes to combat adverse increases in the population. The justification behind church interference in such issues comes directly from doctrines based on the bible involving the right to life, the orders of God to â€Å"go forth and multiply† and the teachings of Jesus which specifically connote the necessity of protecting l ife. In justifying their position on such matters religious scholars often point towards the inerrant nature of the Bible which focuses on the plan of God for humanity and the doctrines by which we should live our lives. The inherent problem though with the bible is that it lacks sufficient advice regarding the current overpopulation of the planet, the spread of HIV and other sexually transmitted illnesses and the fact that stem cell research could potentially improve the lives of countless number of people. As such, while Evangelical scholars point out that the Bible is â€Å"without error in all that affirms† the fact remains that its affirmations lack sufficient precedent on modern day issues. This is not to say that the bible is wrong, the fact is that the bible acts as a sufficient foundation for reasonable action and behaviors which acts as the cornerstones of society, however, the fact remains that it should be considered as a foundation and not the entirety by which s ocial actions should be based upon13. In a rather debasing fashion, Hansen (2008) points out that the bible states that it is perfectly fine to stone a woman to death, have sex with a child and other similar types of behavior14. Hansen (2008) utilizes this as evidence that the bible is not necessarily inerrant given that such methods of behavior are widely considered to be socially unacceptable at the present. While the arguments utilized by Hansen (2008) are far from academically appropriate, the fact remains that they do point out the inherent weaknesses of the bible and the necessity of modifying the general attitude towards its inerrant nature. For example, post modernist Christians point out that the bible should be considered partially inerrant with some aspects being utilized in order to justify methods of behavior but should not be utilized in order to affect issues which are social in nature. On the other end of the spectrum scholars point towards the inspirations drawn fro m inerrant scriptures as the means by which moral and ethical decisions concerning society should be based upon. As Jelen and Lockett (2010) explains, the fact is that the bible acts as a moral compass by which society compares its current position with the intended destination by God. It is only through such an examination that we are able to determine whether as a society we are heading towards a path of positive development or adverse debasement under the guise of technological innovation. Jelen and Lockett (2010) goes on to explain that society needs an inerrant comparison by which it can compare itself to in order to develop in such a way that it is in conjunction with the intended path set forth by God. Such arguments are related to the concepts of the protection of life, barring the use of contraception, affirming the dual nature of the sexes (i.e. being against homosexuality) and the establishment of a life based on religious doctrine15. Conclusion Based on the given argumen ts presented within this paper it can be seen that the concepts of inerrancy and infallibility when applied to the bible should not be utilized as sufficient justification on religious positions on social issues. One of the reasons behind this stems from differences in interpretation, whether intentional or not, that results in differing groups manifesting a plethora of divergent arguments. What you have to understand is that the context in which the bible was written can be interpreted in either a literal or spiritual sense and as such can result in a variety of differing religious observances. This can be seen in the general acceptance of homosexuality by one faction of Christianity and disdain from another. The same applies to views regarding women’s rights, religious observances and general ethics. As explained earlier, the bible was never truly meant to encompass all aspects and changes that could occur within society. It was written within the context of the time of the authors and as such manifests ethical and moral principles that were inherent to this particular time frame and culture. Thus, when compared to present day circumstances, the various social observances that were noted within the bible at the time become distinctly different. As such, when applied to present day social standards the bible cannot be considered wholly inerrant given that it can no longer sufficiently apply itself to modern day issues. Not only that, it was originally meant as a means of helping promote social relationships such as friendship, love and peace and; it was not meant as a means by which people should dictate the way in which society should evolve. It must also be noted that the infallible notion of the Bible is also highly questionable when applied to concepts related to technological development, population control and environmentalism given that it was not meant to encapsulate such aspects. It was originally meant as a guide for interaction, faith and th e development of love for one’s fellow man. Taking this into consideration, it can be stated justifying religious positions on the inerrant and infallible nature of the Bible is thus inapplicable since what is being done is merely interpreting what is being said in order to fit the definitions that suit the needs of that particular religious group. It can also be stated that based on the presented information it can be seen that ethos can be manufactured and created for a certain purpose and in the case of the ethos utilized by religious groups its basis is one which advocates the manipulation of facts in order to serve the ends of that particular group. The fact remains that due to reasoning of the ethos used by religious organizations that keeps on justifying itself on the basis of the infallible and inerrant nature of the Bible shows itself to be inherently flawed. The ethical flaw in this particular case is the fact that basis a system of ethos on self-interpretation crea tes far too many risks in terms of the ethical principles behind the creation of the ethos itself. In fact further examination of this type of ethos reveals that it seems more self-serving to religious groups than to the general public. As it was established earlier the concept of ethos can be shaped and molded in order to entice greater public support for a particular issue. That is what is being seen in the ethos of various religious groups wherein the justification for actions are based on an ethos that has been molded to create positive public opinion but in fact is nothing more than a method of allowing such groups to do what they please. Bibliography Audi, Robert. â€Å"Belief, faith, and acceptance.† International Journal For Philosophy Of Religion 63, no. 1-3 (February 2008): 87-102. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . Beale, G. K. â€Å"Can the bible be completely inspired by god and yet still contain errors? a response to some recent â€Å"evangelical† prop osals.† Westminster Theological Journal 73, no. 1 (Spring2011 2011): 1-22. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . Durland, Stanley. â€Å"The Structure of Biblical Inspiration.† Journal Of Spirituality Paranormal Studies 30, no. 2 (April 2007): 101-111. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . Galli, Mark. â€Å"A New Bible Battle.† Christianity Today 55, no. 10 (October 2011): 11. MasterFILE Premier, EBSCOhost . Grass, Tim. â€Å"Scripture alone: ‘Is the Bible all we need?’.† Evangel 25, no. 3 (September 2007): 66-68. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . Hansen, Collin. â€Å"Bishops Battle for the Bible.† Christianity Today 52, no. 12 (December 2008): 16. MasterFILE Premier, EBSCOhost . Hylton, Pauline. â€Å"Gifted by God.† Priority! 13, no. 2 (Summer2011 2011): 39. MasterFILE Complete, EBSCOhost . Jelen, Ted G., and Linda A. Lockett. â€Å"AMERICAN CLERGY ON EVOLUTION AND CREATIONISM.† Review Of Religious Research 51, no. 3 (March 2010): 277-287. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . Kantzer, K. â€Å"Why I still believe the Bible is true.† Christianity Today 32, no. 14 (October 7, 1988): 22. MasterFILE Premier, EBSCOhost . â€Å"Leaving Out the Bible Can Lead to Incorrect Results.† Biblical Archaeology Review 37, no. 6 (November 2011): 12-66. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . â€Å"No Errors? The Baptists and the bible.† Time 114, no. 1 (July 2, 1979): 61. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . Sherkat, Darren E. â€Å"Religion and Scientific Literacy in the United States.† Social Science Quarterly (Blackwell Publishing Limited) 92, no. 5 (December 15, 2011): 1134-1150. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . Sheler, Jeffery L. â€Å"Mysteries of the Bible. (cover story).† U.S. News World Report 118, no. 15 (April 17, 1995): 60. MasterFILE Premier, EBSCOhost . Smith, Andrew. â€Å"Secularity and biblical literalism: confronting the case for epistemological diversity. † International Journal For Philosophy Of Religion 71, no. 3 (June 2012): 205-219. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . â€Å"The Evolution of the Debate.† Christianity Today 56, no. 7 (July 2012): 28. MasterFILE Premier, EBSCOhost . Footnotes 1 Sherkat, Darren E. â€Å"Religion and Scientific Literacy in the United States.† Social Science Quarterly (Blackwell Publishing Limited) 92, no. 5 (December 15, 2011): 1134-1150. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . 2 Beale, G. K. â€Å"Can the bible be completely inspired by god and yet still contain errors? a response to some recent â€Å"evangelical† proposals.† Westminster Theological Journal 73, no. 1 (Spring2011 2011): 1-22. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . 3 Smith, Andrew. â€Å"Secularity and biblical literalism: confronting the case for epistemological diversity.† International Journal For Philosophy Of Religion 71, no. 3 (June 2012): 205-219. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . 4  "No Errors? The Baptists and the bible.† Time 114, no. 1 (July 2, 1979): 61. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . 5 Kantzer, K. â€Å"Why I still believe the Bible is true.† Christianity Today 32, no. 14 (October 7, 1988): 22. MasterFILE Premier, EBSCOhost . 6 â€Å"The Evolution of the Debate.† Christianity Today 56, no. 7 (July 2012): 28. MasterFILE Premier, EBSCOhost . 7 â€Å"Leaving Out the Bible Can Lead to Incorrect Results.† Biblical Archaeology Review 37, no. 6 (November 2011): 12-66. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . 8 Audi, Robert. â€Å"Belief, faith, and acceptance.† International Journal For Philosophy Of Religion 63, no. 1-3 (February 2008): 87-102. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . 9 Sheler, Jeffery L. â€Å"Mysteries of the Bible. (cover story).† U.S. News World Report 118, no. 15 (April 17, 1995): 60. MasterFILE Premier, EBSCOhost . 10 Grass, Tim. â€Å"Scripture alone: ‘Is the Bible all we need?’.† Evangel 25, no. 3 (September 2007): 66-68. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . 11 Galli, Mark. â€Å"A New Bible Battle.† Christianity Today 55, no. 10 (October 2011): 11. MasterFILE Premier, EBSCOhost . 12 Hylton, Pauline. â€Å"Gifted by God.† Priority! 13, no. 2 (Summer2011 2011): 39. MasterFILE Complete, EBSCOhost . 13 Durland, Stanley. â€Å"The Structure of Biblical Inspiration.† Journal Of Spirituality Paranormal Studies 30, no. 2 (April 2007): 101-111. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . 14 Hansen, Collin. â€Å"Bishops Battle for the Bible.† Christianity Today 52, no. 12 (December 2008): 16. MasterFILE Premier, EBSCOhost . 15 Jelen, Ted G., and Linda A. Lockett. â€Å"AMERICAN CLERGY ON EVOLUTION AND CREATIONISM.† Review Of Religious Research 51, no. 3 (March 2010): 277-287. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . This research paper on Concepts of Inerrancy and Infallibility in the Bible was written and submitted by user Emerald Woodpecker to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

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Robert Frost v. Pink Floyd essays From Robert Frost's Mending Wall to Pink Floyd's Another Brick in the Wall, humankind erects and maintains real and symbolic barriers to protect and defend opposing stances, beliefs and territories. Although each "wall" is different they serve the same purpose and both Frost and Floyd oppose them. Robert Frost's Mending Wall is a very popular poem. This poem consists of two characters: the narrator and his neighbor. In this poem the two neighbors are mending a stone wall that separates their property. The wall mending has been a pastime of the neighbors for many years and occurs every spring. Over the winter the wall has fallen victim to both hunters and the frozen ground and, therefore, contains gaps that must be filled. In the poem the narrator questions the sense of even mending the wall . He concludes that neither of the farms contain animals, only trees, which would be enough of a boundary. There is no physical need for the wall, so why go through the trouble of fixing it every year for no apparent reason. Although the narrator is right the ignorant neighbor insists that they mend the wall by saying "Good fences make good neighbors."(Frost) The neighbor repeats this saying although he doesn't know why the wall is necessary nor does he know why it will make them better neighbors . Frost is criticizing the ignorance of the neighbor here. Mending Wall, although it doesn't appear it on the surface, almost parallels to a popular Pink Floyd song, Another Brick in the Wall. The speakers of the song are students and the poem is directed towards teachers. In this song, as in Mending Wall, a barrier is discussed, but this time it is a phsycological barrier instead of a physical one. This barrier has been put up by society and is being built up by the teachers. The students are calling out against this building up of the wall. "All in all you're(teachers) just another brick in the wall."(Floyd) This barrier ...

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Social Policy The modern era - Essay Example This will entail use of the functionalist approach which views social welfare development as a response to emerging needs and the conflict approach that views the development as a result of labour movements. First, a brief history of social welfare will be given in order to understand origins and the workings of the old Elizabethan poor law which is the basis of welfare state in Britain. Next, the 19th and 20th century approaches to provision of poverty and public health will be outlined. This is to provide an illustration of early welfare provision and the key themes which have dominated this field for decades. The effect of political, economic and social influences on government intervention will be discussed especially the influence of industrial revolution on society and resulting social problems. The role of the liberal party which came into power in 1906 and labour movements in extending welfare provision will be explained. The effect of the great depression on welfare provisio n is also of great importance to understanding the increased state intervention during inter-war years. Lastly, a summary of the main points discussed will be given. In order to understand the development of the social welfare in Britain it is essential to understand its history. Much of Britain’s welfare policies emanated from the Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601. It established parishes which were responsible for providing relief for the poor (Alcock, Erskine & May, 2003). It also established workhouses where those in need could be assisted and work in return. One could only get relief at his parish of birth and it mostly targeted men as women and children were regarded as dependents. According to Ritter (1986) the workhouses were meant to reduce the eligibility of men to social welfare provision by limiting relief to those in workhouses although out-relief was still being offered to the poor. This was also the origin of the dreaded term ‘pauperism.’ Those receivin g relief were stigmatised and viewed as lazy members of the society who did not want to work (Dean, 2006). As revealed by poverty surveys, the Elizabethan Poor law did not alleviate poverty and was repealed in 1834. The Pre-war social welfare in Britain was dominated by the laissez-faire ideology and according to Walsh, Stephens and Moore (2000) increased state intervention in welfare provision. One of the factors attributed to this is the efficiency of the German welfare system in promoting economic competitiveness that prompted many nations to emulate the system (Dean, 2006). Thane (1996; 2011) argues that it was the industrial revolution in Britain in 18th century continuing into the 20th century that sparked reforms in welfare provision before WWI. The role of the liberal party which came into power in 1906 cannot be overemphasised as well as the philosophy of social liberalism prevalent at the time. Industrial revolution began in the 18th century and with it brought many econom ic and social changes that influenced the development of social welfare in Britain (Walsh et al. 2000). Before then, Britain was an agricultural country but thereafter transformed into a factory-based economy. The domestic system had been the prevalent system in 18th century and workers worked at own homes producing food for subsistence. They could work at their own pace and control their working conditions but due to industrialisation this system was replaced by the factory

High risk pregnacy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

High risk pregnacy - Research Paper Example First, she is overage. The risks of complications in pregnancy increase with age. Mrs. K is already past the safe age of 35 years. Secondly, she is obese. This complicates further her pregnancy due to the risks of conditions such as hypertension. In fact, she has already developed gestational diabetes and has to depend on insulin. It is also worth noting that her social history does not adequately support her health needs. This is clearly demonstrated by her inability to afford insulin, glucometer and glucometer strips. Besides, she cannot effectively maintain adequate bed-rest prescribed. Currently, the patient is out of hospital. She has been monitored for 37 weeks at what time her cerclage is released and delivery conducted. She delivers a six-pound, two-ounce baby spontaneously without many problems. The puerperium is normal with the mother and child discharged home after only 48 hours after delivery in good condition. The management has successfully controlled not only the risk of pregnancy but also helped retain the mothers’ hobby, knitting. This assists the mother to save money on the baby’s blanket and also keep her busy and away from junk foods. The patient is diabetic and obese. She has to depend on insulin injections to control her blood sugars. She also has a bad obstetric history, having lost seven of her last pregnancies. She has only one surviving child, 18 years old. She has had cramping and false signs of pregnancy which could be the cause of previous loss of pregnancy. For this, she requires close monitoring in a high-risk obstetric clinic to ensure that this pregnancy matures to term. During the early third trimester, the patient was diagnosed with urinary tract infection and placed on antibiotics in consultation with the physician. This case was handled by qualified community obstetrician. The case manager was able to identify and handle all the client’s health problems throughout the period of

Have the benefits that immigrants have brought to British society Essay - 1

Have the benefits that immigrants have brought to British society outweighed the problems they have caused - Essay Example According to mail online report, Britain plans to ban wives brought to the UK, mainly from India and Pakistan (Crackdown on 80,000 immigrants for abusing benefits system, 2009). This paper compares the benefits and problems of immigration in Britain Chart (2003) has argued that if someone is sufficiently motivated to travel thousands of miles in search of a better life, they are sufficiently motivated to get out of the damp bedsit and look for work in search of one that is better yet (Chart, 2003). People are immigrating to other countries on the lookout of better living conditions. In their home country, they may not have enough opportunities to utilize their expertise. For example, India is a country which is blessed with immense educated and skilled manpower resources. The problem with India is that because of the immense population size, it is unable to provide enough opportunities to the unemployed and thus failed to capitalise on the huge manpower resources they have. On the other hand UK is a country which is blessed with enough opportunities, but less manpower resources. Thus immigration helped UK to utilize the overseas manpower resources for their economic development. The immigrant community will work hard for better living conditions which will be beneficial to Britain. In fact, most of Indians are not working hard if they work in their home country whereas in immigrant countries like Middle East, America or UK, they have a good reputation as far as hardworking is concerned. â€Å"Immigration will add substantial numbers of economically productive individuals, and given the chance, many of them will be more economically productive than average† (Chart, 2003). Another biggest contribution of the immigrant community is the enrichment of British culture. A culture is a living thing, and it is always growing and changing. Cultures which feed on nothing but themselves tend to become

Biodegradable Polymers: Processes of Degradation

Biodegradable Polymers: Processes of Degradation Introduction The ISO definition of a biodegradable polymer is â€Å"an irreversible process leading to a significant change of the structure of a material, typically characterized by a loss of properties (e.g. integrity, molecular weight, structure or mechanical strength) and/or fragmentation. Degradation is affected by environmental conditions and proceeds over a period of time comprising one or more steps† Biodegradable and compostable processes are essentially the same mechanism of how materials irreversibly breakdown into their fundamental composition, CO2, H2O, CH4 and other low-molecular weight products. The major difference is on how they go about the decomposition, biodegradation occurs naturally where microorganisms metabolise the material, where as composting takes place under strict conditions rate of degradation and the end product is non-toxic. The process of composting will also be affected by the size of the particles, large pieces may not be compostable but shreds of the same material may be compostable. Materials can also be composted at homes and the end product used in gardening, but some materials may not compostable at home and may require an industrial process. Biodegradable and compostable polymers should not be confused with biopolymers, which are naturally occurring polymers that readily degrade in the environment, starch, cellulose, proteins are a few examples of biopolymers, while the former are polymers engineered to degrade in the environment through one or more mechanisms of degradation. The degradation of a polymer should into consideration the other mechanisms of material degradation (oxidation, hydrolysis, photo-degradation, thermal-degradation) which can affect the polymer before or during the biodegradation process, or maybe the only mechanism acting on the polymer [ 41.wang ]. As more people are becoming more eco-conscious and aware of global warming, although not directly responsible, more effort is put into discovering new sustainable plastics and better manufacturability of these degradable polymers. History and why bioplastics? The first polymers, or plastics as it generally known, recorded in history were produced by The Horners Company in London [BPF site] which used horn and tortoiseshell as the predominant early natural plastic in the year 1284. But it is in the early 18th century that the plastic industry started to build up its momentum, it is during the period Alexander Parkes invented the first plastic in the 1850s [makingthemodernworld]. Today polymers are the most widely used material playing in an important role in civil construction to human wellbeing. A pair in Germany were awarded the patent to their invention of Casein Plastic as the first bioplastic derived from milk, but it was in 1990 that ICI Ltd launched the first commercially available biodegradable plastic. With the world consumption of plastics increasing to 100 million tonnes annually , from 5 million tonnes in the 1950s,[M.Avella] and growing at a rate of 4% annually. They can only be recycled or dumped into a landfill, which are becoming scarce [J_H_Song] , and with more governments of the developed world taking advantage of the developing world, where they send their nations waste to be disposed to and where it cannot be dealt efficiently due to the lack of proper facilites. What goes into the landfills cannot be controlled and the mixture of waste releases toxic agents from the more volatile waste, and gases, most notably methane from the other degradable waste, into the atmosphere which would be difficult to capture it everywhere, which is utilised in the U.K. Total solid waste in the EU is 520 Kg/year per person of which 10%-15% is plastics, more than 50 Kg, of which 40% is sent to landfills [mooney brian p] which is about 10 million tonnes, with the EU population at 0.5 billion [eurostat]. Recycling polythene carrier bags rather than producing new plastic has many environmental benefits such as: Reducing energy consumption by almost 67% Produces 33% of sulphur dioxide and 50% of nitrous oxide uses almost 90% less water Emits almost 250% less carbon dioxide One of the most important factors that it saves 1.8 million tonnes of oil for one tonne of polythene recycled. [wasteonline] Not accounting for the total carbon footprint of the process. But recycling is not very efficient process compared to producing new materials, every time plastic is recycled it loses about 10% of it mass, [green plastics] reducing the mass of the material to 73% of its original after only 3 recycles. The current proven world crude oil reserves of about a total of 1,342 billions of barrels[eia.doe.gov, no title], is estimated to run out by 2040[imeche] at current rate of consumption, though there are critics who would oppose these figures, therefore even more urgency in developing sustainable biodegradable polymers by then is required with the population doubling. How they are made? Biodegradable polymers can be based on a variety of environmentally sustainable materials, or a combination of different biomass, and also from bacteria. The most basic material that is used is starch which is abundantly available, large quantities present in corn and potatoes but also all vegetables, and at a low price. Cellulose is another commonly and easily accessible material that is being used to produce bioplastics. Certain oil based polymers have a degree of biodegradability too, polymers such as polycarbonate, polyhydroxybutyrate and poly vinyl alcohol [ BrodyMarsh ] or other biomaterials added to make it biodegradable though it may not be possible for the polymer to degrade 100%. Not all biodegradable polymers are derived from biomaterials or oil some can be synthesised, Aliphatic polyesters [ mulch films ]. Starch Starch molecules are polymers of Glucose molecules, where all the sugars are oriented in the same direction, as shown in the diagram below. Starch is made up of two types of molecules amylose and amylopectin, depending on the type of the plant starch can contain upto 25% amylose and 80% amylopectin [Poon, introduction to organic]. Starch granules diameter are averagely in the range 5-40  µm, depending on the source, they are not suitable in the plastic industry as they are difficult to process during extrusion and injection moulding. Starch therefore has to be processed, physically and chemically, before it can be used as thermoplastic starch, TPS, which usually includes heating it up in the presence of water to form a gelatinous material, but may require further treatment as this type of TPS is not moisture resistant [ 36/41.wang ]. To ensure that polymers were degraded in the environment after their service life starch was mixed with a range of polymers, such as polyethylene [ 50 Ke.Ty ], but because these class of polymers contain non-degradable polymers which will not be degraded, and cannot be seen, they cannot be called biodegradable polymers. Thermoplastics starch are therefore mixed with vinyl alcohol to create composites that tend to be more stable, but reducing the starch content in the thermoplastic polymer composite will reduce the biodegradability of the polymer[37]. TPS mixed with other biodegradable polymers ensure a 100% rate of degradation, which is not the case as mentioned when mixed with other polymers. TPS are mixed with synthetic polymers such as poly-(lactic acids) (PLA), poly(glycolic acids) (PGA) etc. [50,ke.ty] PLA blended with starch can reduce the costs of the polymer in addition to greatly reducing its rate of degradation, the raw materials of PLA is produced by fermenting carbohydrates from renewable sources, such as corn [50]. Cellulose Cellulose is a type of polysaccharide, a carbohydrate, found in plant cell walls and the most abundant organic material on earth, 40% of all organic matter [ green plastics ], it is produced by plants by natural photosynthesis from CO2 and water, at an annual rate of 200 billion tonnes, of which 6 billion tonnes are used [ 45.simon.J ] . Cellulose is similar to starch with the main difference being the molecular arrangement, in starch the molecules are highly branched and in cellulose the molecules are linear. Due to the arrangement molecular structure of cellulose, it cannot be processed into a thermoplastic but has to be converted to derivatives e.g esters and ethers to reduce the intermolecular forces for molecular flow to occur under heat and shearing conditions, unlike processing starch it does not require moisture [ thermoplastic starch ]. Attempts to produce polymers from cellulose, like polymers from starch, during past half a century were discouraged by textbooks expressing that because cellulose has a rigid backbone it cannot be converted to a polymeric material [ 54.yoshioka]. The figure shows various polymer derivatives from starch and cellulose, with the hydrogen in the starch molecules replaced by the R groups to form different polymers [ 14.second grn rev ]. Nitrocellulose, a highly explosive material, for instance is produced by reacting cellulose with a nitrating acid, mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids, and with alcohol or a plasticizer, such as camphor to make it more flexible and mouldable, added to stabilise the process [ 40.azom ]. Cellulose acetate is one of the more important and used cellulose derived biodegradable polymers, usually prepared from high grade cellulose, obtained from fast growing tress or cotton linters [ 53.alexander ]. It is commonly prepared by synthesising raw cellulose acetic acid followed by acetic anhydride in the presence of sulphuric acid, which acts as a catalyst, producing primary cellulose acetate, known as cellulose triacetate. The triacetate can then be formed into a solution, using methylene chloride as a solvent, which can then be dry-spun to form fibres, to produce cellulose diacetate. Finally cellulose diacetate can be dissolved, acetone as a solvent, to form fibres known as cellulose acetate [ britannica ]. All three groups of cellulose acetate are similar, what differentiates them is the percentage of hydroxyl groups that are acetylated, according to the Federal Trade Commission, of America, 92% of hydroxyl groups must have acetylated to refer it as a cellulose acetate, els e the generally referred to it as cellulose triacetate [ 52.rulesreg] . To produce a process-able polymer the cellulose acetate particles is mixed with a liquid additive, mixing thoroughly using a high speed mixer resulting into fine grained powder and extruded to form granules. Processing parameters that apply are 20-30D screw-type mixer, temperature range 160-190  °C and pre-drying for 2 hours at 70 °C. These granules can then be subjected to standard thermoplastic processing techniques [ 53.alexander ]. Lignin is another second most abundant component of woody plants, 20% of all organic material [green plastics], which is not yet used to its full potential, small amount used in various industries. There are new methods being developed to produce lignocellulosic biomass. Proteins There is not a huge amount of information available on biodegradable polymers derived from proteins. One reason may be that plants do not contain a high amount of proteins to be efficient enough to produce polymers, such as 100 grams of corn contains only 3.22 grams of proteins but 19.02 grams of carbohydrates, almost 6 times as much. Soybean the highest protein containing 36 grams of protein and almost as much carbohydrates, but yielding only 50% of the crop per unit area when compared to maize [ 61.lobell ]. Protein just like starch and cellulose can be regarded as a polymer made up of chains of various amino acids. Proteins from various crops have been used to produce polymers, especially zein and gluten, produced in maize and wheat respectively. Zein-gluten composite polymer can be produced by having wheat gluten coated with zein, [ 62.kim,sanghoon ] . The process does not require extrusion processes or high temperature, but only requires of zein to be purified. Kim Sanghoon describes a relatively simple method of producing a protein based biodegradable polymer, from gluten, zein, ethanol and distilled water, and compressed in an aluminium mould. Other methods of producing protein based polymers include using wood fibres mixed with gluten is plasticized using glycerol, water and ethanol, and extrusion moulded,[ 65.Wu.Qiangxian ] unlike the Sanghoon method. Sources of proteins used to produce biodegradable polymers include feather-meal, waste animal proteins [60.feathermeal], soy bean [ 58.nanda], egg white [ 39. Egg white ]. Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers Biodegradable polymers can be synthesised in lab, but because the costs involved the materials are further mixed with a natural polymer, usually starch, as it is abundant and cheaply available or a cellulose derived polymer. A few of the synthetic biodegradable polymers to name are polyglycolide (PGA), polylactides (PLA) (also known as Poly (lactic acid)), polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA). Synthetic polymers can generally offer greater advantages compared to naturally derived polymer, as they can be engineered to have the desirable properties, and have more consistency, unlike naturally derived polymers they do not depend on the source of the raw material which can influence the properties and quality of the final polymer. Aliphatic polyesters are the most widely and commercially used synthetic polymers available, a few are named above, other polymers that have emerged in the market are polyester containing aromatic moieties. The synthetic biodegradable polymers may be classified into three groups, but the literature will only review polyesters Polyesters Polymers containing both esters and other heteroatom-containing linkages in the main chains Polymers with heteroatom-containing linkages other than ester linkages in the main chain Biodegradable polyesters can be synthesised in a number of ways Polycondensation reaction diols and dicarboxylic acids Self-polycondensation of hydroxyacids Ring opening polymerisation Of the above three processes polycondensation, also known as step-growth polymerisation, and ring opening polymerisation are more widely. Some polyesters synthesised by polycondensation are Poly (lactic acid), Poly (glycolic acid), Polycaprolactone. The process involves the monomers of the two raw material reacting to progressively form long chain polymers, as the secondary name suggests. One disadvantage of the process is that the water production from the reaction must be continuously removed, leading to lengthy reaction times and producing varying chain length polymers. [ reviewed by 75.RaySmith/ 73. Okada ] Poly (lactic acid), a linear aliphatic polyester, based on lactic acid, which can be produced by fermenting carbohydrates or by chemical method. Lactic acid contains both the hydroxyl and carboxyl groups needed for polycondensation, but requires removal of water, by azeotropic distillation, as mentioned, to avoid poor yield, further production methods of various aliphatic polyesters is provided M. Bhattacharya.[ by Bhattacharya p337 in 75.RaySmith ] Ring opening polymerisation is a form of addition polymerisation, where cyclic monomers join a reactive centre (terminal end of a polymer),a range of anionic, cationic and coordinative initiators/catalyst are mentioned in scientific literature, to form long chain polymers though ionic propagation. [R Jerome p77 reviewed by 75.RaySmith]. Ring opening polymerisation is advantageous than polycondensation such that it takes place in milder reaction conditions and there are no side reactions, giving a more controlled end product [ 73.okada ], one of the most used polymers in the market Nylon 6 is produced using this process. The ring-opening polymerisation can be initiated by many organometallic derivatives of metals such as Al, Sn, Y, Nd, Yb, Sm etc, which have d-orbitals of favourable energy, metal alkoxides, e.g. aluminium alkoxides, tin alkoxides, may acts as typical initiators. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are a class of biodegradable polymer, polyesters , produced by using bacteria, e.g. Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Ralstonia etc, especially members of the Halobactereicae, as the production centre. The PHA is synthesised within the bacteria that functions as an energy storing water-insoluble compound in the cytoplasm of the bacteria cell[80.anderson]. Bacteria that do not produce PHA can be modified to produce them, e.g. cloning PHA operon, nucleotide sequences of DNA that control the production of PHA, into E. Coli bacteria allows the production of PHA by the bacteria. PHA are then produced by the bacteria when it supplied with source of high carbon content, like glucose under nutrient-limiting conditions. The described way producing is considerably more expensive than oil based polymers there have been suggestions of using products from the food industry as a feedstock for the bacteria to produce PHA, malt waste from a brewery is one of the suggestions, where b acteria produced upto 70% polymer, of dry cell weight (DCW). [82. Yu.Peter] Recent research groups have been forced to find alternate methods of producing PHA, due to the costs involved in the conventional method, and have been experimenting successfully with transgenic plants, where the only raw materials required would be CO2, for carbon, and sunlight. Other areas that have attracted research to produce polymers of the PHA family are the cyanobacteria, that produce the P(3HB) by oxygenic photosynthesis, but their yield rates are very small compared to the conventional method.Synechococcus MA19, a unicellular thermopile, can store upto 55% DCW. [reviewed by 78. philip] Rubber Rubber is an elastomer and a polymer of isoprene, it can be synthesised or be derived from the Brazilian rubber tree, Hervea Brasiliensis, from which most natural rubber is derived, but unlike the name suggest, over 95% of natural rubber in 2008 was produced in Asia, mostly south Asia, but synthetic rubber still makes a greater portion of the market, 56% of the world supplied with synthetic rubber. Rubber like material was developed based on thermal polymerization epoxidized soybean oil (ESO) with triethlyene glycol diamine (TGD), which produce a polymer behaving as a rubber-like elastomer [reviewd in 107.soybean]. Another method to produce natural rubber is by using PHA, which is obtained from bacteria as described, which will therefore be completely biodegradable. The PHA surface is however hydrophobic making it difficult for the microorganisms to inhabit on the surface an degrade, hence its increasing its shelf life significantly, but still be degradable in a composting environment. [109.rubber bacteria] Properties and Enhancements The most important property for all biodegradable polymers, or degradable polymers, is that are completely degradable into basic components, CO2 CH4 and H2O , including any other organic compound, by the means of microbial attack, or any other naturally occurring process for the polymers that classified as degradable by other means. Properties of biodegradable material should be separated into three categories, the naturally derived polymers, synthetic polymers and the composite of these polymers. Naturally Derived polymers TPS shows excellent degradability and composting ability in the soil, partly due to the water solubility of starch. It also has a good oxygen barrier and is not electrostatically chargeable [ 7.Lorcks ]. Unmodified starch polymer have poor processability and mechanical properties, compared to the other polymers available, but plasticising the starch, by addition of water, can assist in processing of the starch, and treating it at a certain temperature would transform the starch into TPS, which show thermoplastic behaviour and properties. As seen in Figure the pure form of TPS has the least period of degradation, but treating it with other biodegradable polymer to enhance its properties increases the time it takes to completely degrade. Cellulose in water-insoluble and like starch fully degradable, and composed of D-gylcopyranoside units, but unlike starch, linked by ÃŽ ±-(1-4) bonds, it is linked by ÃŽ ²-(1-4) bonds. The molecular arrangement of cellulose, explained previously, and the bond type contributes to the longer periods it takes to degrade, which is transferred to the polymer it is based on. Cellulose will readily decompose on heating, therefore cannot be heated to process, but is synthesised into cellulose acetate which like starch shows properties and characteristics of a thermoplastic, but the time it takes to degrade is reduced as the cellulose content of the polymer is reduced. Cellulose and starch the two of most used and abundant organic compounds having similar properties, except the time to full degradation, both have the characteristic of their glass transition temperature and melting temperature being close to their decomposition temperature. M. Gaspar [83.reduce water absoption] conducted experiments to examine and improve water absorption in starch based polymers. The experiment contains four specimens of TPS, TPS w/Cellulose, TPS w/hemicelluloses, TPS/polycaprolactone and TPS w/zein each composite having the same proportion, by weight, of the additive. The results showed that TPS w/zein had the highest tensile strength Youngs modulus and TPS w/cellulose the lowest tensile strength and TPS w/polycaprolactone the lowest Youngs modulus. The table shows a few of the mechanical properties of the polymers described above, noting that the 2 different types of starch have significantly differently poreprties. Film type Test condition Tensile strength (MPa) Elongation at break (%) Water vapor permeability (gmm/m2daykPa) Reference Cassava starch 25 °C 75% RH 9.0-17.0 9.0-28.0 [86] Corn starch 25 °C 75% RH 3.8-4.3 4.0-10.0 [86] Low density polyethylene 38 °C 90% RH 7.6-17.3 500.0 0.08 [88] High density polyethylene 38 °C 90% RH 17.3-34.6 300.0 0.02 [88] Cellulose acetate 38 °C 90% RH 48.5-82.7 15.0-45.0 [88] Polyester 38 °C 90% RH 178.0 70.0-100.0 [88] Cellophane 38 °C 90/0% RH 7.27 [89] PLA is a synthetic biodegradable polymer, that is brittle and has poor impact strength, leading to failure of the material by cracking and tearing, and therefore preventing a more widespread use of the polymer in the packaging industry. Another PLA property is its natural yellow tint, which again is a factor that prevents it uses in the packaging industry, which leads to poor presentation of a consumer product. PLA is therefore blended with other biodegradable polymers (to keep it 100% biodegradable) to improve the properties that are most desirable. Usually is PLA mixed with plasticizers such as pole-ÃŽ µ-caprolactone, poly (vinyl acetate), starch, poly(hydroxyl butyrate), providing the PLA with more ductility, but having a negative effect on the tensile strength[91 to 99]. The brittleness of PLA can be counter acted by mixing it with a plasticiser, which also reduces the already low glass transition temperature further reducing its end product applications.[100 101] F.Byrne [90] tested PLA mixed various available masterbatches, commercially available polymer additives, to check the enhancements, and the results are as in table, of them all PLA dcS511-Ice clear appears to be the best option for an additive as it removes the tint from the material. Table Thermal, mechanical, optical and surface properties of PLA and PLA/masterbatch blends Properties determined Units PLA Biomax Strong PLA dcS511 PLA dcS515-N PLA dcS511-Ice clear Glass transition temperature oC 59 59 59 58 58 Melting temperature oC 150 150 151 150 151 Crystallinity % 9 0 5 7 4 Tensile strength MPa 68 66 67 66 64 Tensile modulus MPa 2.3 2.0 1.9 2.0 2.1 Impact strength N 90 390 90 90 90 Shore D hardness 69D 59D 64D 69D 64D Haze % 19.5 67.9 20.6 13.5 10.9 Yellowness index 7.2 10.0 5.8 10.8 0 Another method of improving the properties of polymers is by producing polymers, an example can be of PLA matrix with natural fibres which may include plasticizers, but still remain completely biodegradable. An experiment included using polypropylene (PP) and PLA matrix, including PLA with plasticizer, with flax fibres. The pure PLA had better mechanical properties than the pure PP, and reduced tensile strength as composites. The results showed the PLA with 30 wt.% flax fibre are a 50% stronger than similar composites made from PP, another study [104 sisal] used sisal fibre in a PLA/Starch composite but resulted in poor mechanical properties. PLA/triacetin, plasticizer, composite with flax fibre reduced the strength of the composite but made it more ductile, effect of the plastizer. PP/flax fibre of 30 wt.% are commonly used in industrial applications that has an elongation to break of 2.7% with a tensile strength of 29MPa, even though fibres greatly increased the PLA strength its ductility was reduced to successfully replace the PP composite a suitable fibre could be researched or PLA/15wt.%Triacetin with elongation to break 2.6% and tensile strength 37.2MPa could be used. When using natural fibres in a polymer matrix composite the inconsistency of natural fibres length and properties must be considered, therefore using synthetic biodegradable fibres, cellulosic origins, an even quality can be obtained[105.herrmann]. Degradation Oil based plastics are resistant to biodegradation, and most other forms of degradation, as the micro organisms responsible for the degradation of these polymers are unable to consume it, mainly due the impenetrable oil based matrix which are they are made from and the surface in contact with the soil is smooth [reviewed in 113 p,p,future] . Another class of polymers are the partially degradable are oil based polymers composites with a easily degradable fibre, e.g. starch, which breakdown as the microorganisms attack the starch and leave the oil based polymer particles behind, which degrade at a much slower rate, but unnoticeable because of the size. Complete degradation of a material occurs through various mechanisms, by microorganisms, light, water etc. Biodegradation can be generally be classified into two categories aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation, where the final products of each of the degradation are CO2, H20 and biomass of aerobic and CO2, CH4 and biomass of anaerobic. CPolymer + O2 à   CO2 + H2O + CResidue + C Based biomass Generally in plastics the amorphous region is more vulnerable to degradation by hydrolysis, as water is easily penetrated into this region. The degradation can be classified into surface degradation and bulk degradation, where surface degradation occurs when the degrading agents are not able to penetrate into the bulk layer of the material and act only on the material surface. Spherulites may be visible on the material undergoing surface degradation. It must be noted that materials in the environment may not be degraded by one specific mode of degradation but a combination of different mechanisms, so it would be sensible to consider degradation of a polymer in the soil to have two mechanisms of degradation acting on it, biodegradation and hydrolytic degradation, and photo-degradation if it is exposed to sunlight. Degradation can be considered to occur in two phases, disintegration and mineralization. The disintegration of polymers may occur through hydrolytic degradation, photo-degradation or thermal-degradation by exoenzymes, mediated or not [114. scott]. The hydrolytic degradation is most likely to occur and have a greater role in the process of the biodegradation of the polymer, the figure below shows the subdivisions of hydrolysis. The mineralization takes place when the microorganisms start to metabolize the disintegrated polymer particles and convert them to common inherent digestion products [6 Krzan]. Natural rubber exists in the environment the various microorganisms required to metabolise the polymer are already widely distributed in the environment. The process starts by the oxidation at the double bond of the polymer chain, leading to the formation of carbonyl, peroxide or epoxide groups. The microorganisms secrete a rubber degrading extracellular enzyme, which in a sense start a chain reaction, as lower-molecular weight fractions are further metabolised by the microorganisms. An industrial scale degradation

The Mormon Religion - The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints :: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

The Mormon Religion - The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, true? Not true? Christians? Not Christians? These are some of the questions people ask about the Mormon church. How did the Mormon church start? Joseph Smith Jr. was born in 1805 in Sharon, Windsor County, Vermont, to Joseph and Lucy Mack Smith. He had 10 brothers and sisters. His parents taught him to pray, read the Bible, and to have faith in God. At age 14, Joseph saw God the Father and His Son, Jesus Christ, in his First Vision. At age 17, Joseph began to receive heavenly messengers who prepared him for his role in the Restoration of the Church of Jesus Christ to the earth. He was a prophet, just like those in biblical times. The First Vision As a boy, Joseph Smith was surrounded by various churches which each claimed to teach the truth. This caused him much serious reflection. He wanted to know which church was right. One day he read a passage in the Bible which says, â€Å"If any of you lack wisdom, let him ask of God, that giveth to all men liberally, and upbraideth not; and it shall be given him† (James 1:5). Joseph decided to accept the invitation to ask God.(James 1:5) 5 aIf†¢ any of you lack bwisdom, let him ask of God, that cgiveth to all men liberally, and dupbraideth†¢ not; and it shall be given him. In the spring of 1820, Joseph went to a grove of trees near his home and prayed to learn which church he should join. In answer to his prayer, Heavenly Father and His Son, Jesus Christ, appeared to him. Joseph wrote: â€Å"When the light rested upon me I saw two Personages, whose brightness and glory defy all description, standing above me in the air. One of them spake unto me, calling me by name and said, pointing to the other—This is My Beloved Son. Hear Him!† Joseph was told to join none of the churches that existed at that time. Joseph’s written account of this event is a powerful testimony of what he saw and experienced. Joseph’s written account After I had retired to the place where I had previously designed to go, having looked around me, and finding myself alone, I kneeled down and began to offer up the desires of my heart to God. I had scarcely done so, I saw a pillar of clight†¢ exactly over my head, above the brightness of the dsun†¢, which descended gradually until it fell upon me.

Historical Background and Status

Historical background and status of textile engineering industry By: S. Chakrabarty Preamble Industrial Revolution in U. K. during 1750 – 1850 gave birth to Textile Machinery. The dominance of India in the field of cotton textiles produced by very skilled manpower was disturbing the British. Systematic development of textile industry with spinning and powerloom machinery was initiated in Lancashire and Manchester to discourage the Indian weavers. Rest is however known to everybody how the machinery industry was developed and nurtured by the respective Governments in the UK and later by Germany and Switzerland followed by others in Europe.In India, machinery manufacture started in the 50s, continued and progressed during 60s & 70s and thereafter. The Government policy to ban expansion of the organized weaving sector during late 60s created/ supported the decentralized powerloom sector. Too much of importance to handlooms and low level technology power looms in the subsequent ye ars, keeping a large list of reserved items for handlooms, throttled the mill industry which lost its initiative for creativity as well as production for the masses. Low level of production in handlooms and low quality production in powerlooms made us uncompetitive in the subsequent years.The Government’s regulative pressures on the Mill Industry continued to play havoc for the weaving industry till the introduction of 1985 Textile Policy and finally revolutionary Industrial Policy in 1991. Development and technology growth in the TEI The Textile Engineering Industry (TEI) during the late 60s, 70s and 80s had received some Government support in the form of foreign collaboration approvals, import assistance by way of phased manufacturing programme and concessional customs duty certification for imported parts and components for manufacture of specified textile machinery.Import duty on components and parts in general was very high at 85% excluding CVD and not conducive for indi genous development. The concessional duty on imported parts, components etc. mentioned above did help the Industry. The then Government’s policy was also supportive that no import of machinery was allowed if there was adequate indigenous production. The local textile industry therefore had no choice but to buy the Indian machinery. This policy helped the TEI to develop and manufacture spinning machinery in the country of the desired quality and quantity. There was no competition from outsider.Internal competition among various players made the development easier and faster. Foreign manufacturers had no choice but to enter into collaborations with local manufacturers. This happened not only in spinning but also in processing machinery. The following collaborations are worth mentioning: Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Names of Foreign Collaborators M/s. Textile Machinery Makers Ltd. U. K. , Platt Bros. , U. K. M/s. Whitin Machine Works, U. S. A. M/s. Howa, Japan M/s. Zinser, Germany M/ s. Marzoli, Italy M/s. Hispani Suiza (Suisse) S. A. , Switzerland M/s. Rieter, Switzerland M/s. Schubert & Salzer, Germany Names of IndianManufacturers M/s. National Machinery Mfrs. Ltd. , Bombay* M/s. M M C. , Calcutta M/s. Texmaco, Calcutta* M/s. Texmaco, Calcutta* M/s. M M C, Bangalore* M/s. Indequip Engineering Ltd. , Ahmedabad M/s. LMW, Coimbatore M/s. New Standard Engg. Items Produced Spinning – Cards, Draw Frame, Speed Frame, Ring Frame Spinning – Carding Engines and RH Can Fed Inter Frames Spinning – Flat Revolving Carding Engines, Draw Frame, Speed Frames Spinning – Narrow Gauge Ring Frame Spinning – Entire Range Spinning – Ring Frame Spinning – Entire range Spinning – Blow Room, Cards, 9. M/s. Zinser, Germany M/s. Trutzschler, Germany M/s. Toyota, Japan 10 11 2 M/s. Suessen, Germany * Presently not in operation Co. Ltd. , Mumbai* M/s. Padmatex Engg. , Baroda* M/s. Trumac, Ahmedabad M/s. Kirloskar Toyoda Textile Machin ery Pvt. Ltd. , Bangalore M/s. Suessen Asia, Pune Draw Frames Spinning – H. S. Draw Frame Spinning – Blow Room, Cards, Draw Frames Spinning – Ring Frame Spinning – Ring Frame Due to acute and long recession in the Textile Industry, initial higher import content coupled with high rate of import duty, non-transfer of latest technology under collaboration agreements leading to import of machinery etc. , the following Indian Companies were closed down during 80s and early 90s.These are M/s. MMC, Kolkata and Bangalore; M/s. Texmaco, Kolkata; M/s. Indequip Engineering, Ahmedabad; M/s. New Standard Engg. Co. Ltd. , Mumbai; M/s. Mafatlal Engg. Co. Ltd. Mumbai; M/s. Textool Co. Ltd. , Coimbatore; M/s. Jeetstex Engg. Ltd. Coimbatore etc. while M/s. LMW, M/s. Trumac, M/s. Zinser India, M/s. Suessen Asia, M/s. Kirloskar Toyoda could manage to stay in production. Why we are better in spinning machinery? There was Government support by way of†¢ †¢ †¢ Res tricted import of spinning machinery – virtually no import of spinning machinery of the same technology available indigenously was allowed.No import of second hand spinning machinery was allowed. Import duty concession on raw materials, parts, components & accessories for production of specified machinery as the import duty in general, was very high. Besides, competition among the machinery manufacturers resulted in production of better quality machines. Reasons for non-development in the Weaving Machinery Sector While the Textile Engineering Industry took up manufacturing of Spinning machinery in full swing with the adequate Government's supportive measures mentioned above, the same did not happen in case of weaving machinery.During 60s (prior to 1970) the Industrial Policy prohibited the organized mill sector to expand their weaving capacity. This was perhaps to support employment generation in the villages by the decentralized and dispersed handloom sector. It was due to t his wrong policy, the unauthorized powerloom clusters started gaining grounds. Even many of the handloom clusters started converting into powerlooms. Since the domestic demand for fabrics was growing fast due to the population growth, the powerloom sector in different parts of the country started growing fast while the handloom sector started shrinking in reality. The fact is still not accepted by the Government). Today, there are over 20 lakh powerlooms but handlooms, may not be more than 8 lakh, if not less! During 70s the organized mill sector was allowed to replace ordinary powerlooms by automatic looms and shuttleless looms on 4:1 basis. However, compulsory manufacture of controlled cloth by the mills sector dampened the spirit of the mills sector. Controlled cloth scheme was done away with during 80s. Expectation of a good demand due to replacement policy prompted the manufacture of automatic looms by M/s.Cimmco, Gwalior in collaboration with M/s. Sakamoto, Japan and M/s. Mafa tlal Engineering Co. in collaboration with M/s. Ruti, Switzerland during 70s. In the late 70s M/s. Lakshmi Automatic Loom Works Ltd. (LALW) started manufacturing Ruti `C’ Type of automatic loom in collaboration with M/s. Ruti, Switzerland. M/s. Cimmco as well as M/s. Mafatlal Engineering Co. tried to manufacture shuttleless looms in collaboration with M/s. Dornier, Germany, Toyoda, Japan and M/s. SACM, France respectively during early 80s. M/s. LALW also started making shuttleless rapier and airjet looms during 80s.During 80s, the powerloom population which was hardly 7 lakh had grown to more than 10 lakhs. The policy of scrapping of powerlooms of the mill industry after replacement or closure failed miserably, all these powerlooms found their way to the decentralized sector. The Government had no option but to regularize all unauthorised powerlooms due to political pressure after announcement of 1985 Textile Policy and subsequent Textile Control Order 1986, doing away with t he age old powerloom permit system. The textile strike during 1980s crippled the Textile mill industry in Mumbai and Maharashtra.During this period the composite structure of the mill industry broke almost completely. While the spinning sector prospered with the modern machinery, the number of working looms in the organized mills sector shrunk considerably and most of the mills found it profitable to close down their weaving section due to bad market condition, high cost of labour, low productivity and tough competition from the powerloom sector. As a result, there was practically no demand for the shuttleless looms manufactured by the two Companies mentioned above which prompted them to close down their shutters one by one.In the meantime, due to the pressure from the decentralized powerloom sector the Government was forced to allow import of second hand weaving machinery which added to the woes of indigenous manufacturers of shuttleless looms. M/s. LALW also had to discontinue the production of shuttleless looms subsequently. During 80s and upto 1991 there was protective market for spinning and processing machinery but not for the weaving machinery due to high production cost and import of second hand looms. Initiatives discouraged after liberalizationThe Industrial Policy announced in 1991 liberalised the Industry in general to a considerable extent. The market became open to the foreign manufacturers and there was tough competition. The spinning machinery makers came of age technologywise and capacitywise and there was also very high demand for spinning machinery. The weaving machinery could not prosper due to the onslaught of import of second hand machinery. There was no restriction on import of second hand weaving machinery before and after 1991. After 1992, there was no support of the Government either for development of weaving machinery or any other textile machinery.In this regard, the only commendable fact was that we became self-sufficient in Weavi ng Preparatory Machinery viz. High Speed Sectional Warping, Direct Warping and Sizing matching with world class technology. M/s. Rabatex Industries, Ahmedabad; M/s. Prashant Gamatex Pvt. Ltd. , Ahmedabad, M/s. Amritlakshmi Machine Works, Mumbai and M/s. Jupiter Engineering Co. , Ahmedabad are the most reputed domestic manufacturers. This could happen because there was less import of second hand machinery and the cost differential between domestic and imported machinery was large and the machines were custom built.The indigenous shuttleless looms (older technology) which have been developed during the late 90s and early 2000, however, could not find a good market due to the adverse policy of the Government i. e. import of second hand shuttleless looms under concessional duty and also under concessional rate of interest under TUF. The situation continues. However, indigenous machinery manufacturers viz. M/s. Aalidhra Weavetech Pvt. Ltd. , Surat; M/s. Bhavin Sales Corporation, Surat; M /s. Dynamic Loom Mfg. Co. , Ahmedabad; M/s. Dinkier Sokerjee Machines, Surat; M/s. Friends Engg.Works, Panipat; M/s. Himson Textile Engg. Inds. Pvt. Ld. ; Surat; M/s. Industrial Engg. Works, Bangalore; M/s. Lakshmi Automatic Loom Works Ltd. , Coimbatore; M/s. Laxmi Textile Stores, Ahmedabad; M/s. Lifebond Machines Pvt. Ltd. , Surat etc. have developed and are producing crank beat up type shuttleless looms with a speed between 450 – 500 mpm. All latest generation shuttleless looms i. e. Airjet, Waterjet, Projectile & Rapier of European and Japanese origin are high speed, high tech, high productive and energy efficient running at a speed of 500 rpm and above.This machinery, though at a higher cost, is economically viable due to its quality and productivity, cost of fabric per meter being less than second hand machinery. Since last 4/5 years, all new large textile units as well as existing reputed textile units expanding capacity had been importing these kinds of machinery to ma ke them commercially viable, e. g. Alok Industries, Welspun, GHCL, Vardhman Group, Century, Raymonds, etc. Therefore, machinery, if made/developed indigenously need to be cost competitive in all respects and cost of production per meter of fabric should be same or less with equivalent quality standard.Then only the manufacturing would be viable and accepted by the Mill Industry/ Organized Sector. Unless there are disincentives for second hand machinery, there is no hope that the decentralized powerloom sector would go in for new machinery. Processing & Finishing Machinery Sector The history of the processing machinery manufacturing sector was somewhat different. During 70s and 80s there were a number of foreign collaborations : M/s. Mather & Platt, U. K. M/s. Reggiani, Italy M/s. Stork, Holland M/s. Gerber, M/s. Menzel and M/s. Eduard Kusters, GermanyMather & Platt (I) Ltd. * SBM Engg. * ATE (Stovec/Stormac*) Calico Indl. Engineers* M/s. Artos & Benninger, Germany M/s. Famatex, Germ any M/s. Obermeaier, Germany M/s. Toshin Kogyo, Japan * Presently not in operation T. Maneklal* Famatex India Ltd. * Dalal Engg. Star Indl. Engg. * Some Companies developed machinery by copying the imported technology viz. M/s. Harish Textile Engineers, M/s. SM Engg. etc. As mentioned earlier, composite structure of the textile industry broke in Europe during 70s. The same happened in India during 80s. This affected the processing sector.While spinning industry became more organized, competitive and export- worthy, the weaving and processing sectors became uncompetitive, decentralized and export unworthy. Since the Government encouraged low technology for the weaving sector (handlooms and ordinary powerlooms), the organized weaving sector in the mill industry could not come up. Similarly, the decentralized processing sector, which started with second hand machinery from the composite mill industry, did not modernize the units in course of time. The domestic manufacturers which had o llaboration prior to 1991 could not continue with their collaborators after 1991 as the market became open and the foreign manufacturers found it easier to market their machines in India rather than making the same under collaboration. During 80s as well as 90s strenuous efforts were put in by some of the Companies to develop machinery by way of re-engineering. Some of them became successful. However, some of the Companies had to close down their shutters due to tough competition in the open market after 1991. Many manufacturing units came into existence to produce low technology cheap machinery to bridge the gap between demand and supply.This had resulted in manufacture of poor quality machines and poor quality processing of textiles thereof. The encouragement given by the Government to the hand processing sector was misused and low technology prevailed. The prominent processing machinery makers who developed quality machines during 80s and 90s were: 1. M/s. Calico Indl. Engineers, Mumbai* 2. M/s. Dalal Engg. Pvt. Ltd. , Mumbai 3. M/s. Devrekha Engineers, Surat 4. M/s. Harish Textile Engineers Ltd. , Mumbai 5. M/s. Mather & Platt (I) Ltd. , Mumbai* 6. M/s. Primatex Machinery Ltd. , Mumbai* 7. M/s. SLM Maneklal Ind. Ltd. , Mumbai* 8. M/s.SM Energy & Electronics, Mumbai 9. M/s. Standard Fabricators (I) Pvt. Ltd. , Mumbai 10. M/s. Stovec Industries Ltd. , Ahmedabad 11. M/s. Texprint Engineers Pvt. Ltd. , Ahmedabad * Presently not in operation In the latter half of 90s again saw acute demand recession from the Textile Industry which continued upto 2002. During this period the Textile Engineering Industry started looking beyond the domestic demand. Export which was never more than Rs. 100 crore until 1988-89 started increasing and reached the level of Rs. 406 crore during 2002-03. There were exports of spinning as well as processing machinery.Some of the manufacturers could compete with the European manufacturers in processing machinery abroad with their high qual ity machines. Improved Demand The demand for textile machinery started picking up slowly after 2002 as the Technology Upgradation Fund Scheme became popular by then. The Textile Industry was also expecting a better market after the st liberalized Quota Free Regime under WTO from 1 January, 2005. Major demand for machinery started after 2004 which has prompted the Textile Engineering Industry to increase its production from the level of Rs. ,341 crore during 2003-04 to Rs. 2,780 crore during 2006-07. However, this happened mainly in spinning machinery and weaving preparatory machinery and to some extent in weaving and processing machinery. The weaving and processing machinery sectors though increased their capacity to a considerable extent, has a long way to go. The processing sector started competing with foreign manufacturers since 1991 though sporadically. They have improved their technology and their machines are now capable of producing fault free processed fabrics in short as w ell as continuous lots.The domestic demand for such machinery has also increased. M/s. Dhall Enterprises & Engineers Pvt. Ltd. , Ahmedabad, M/s. Harish Enterprises Pvt. Ltd. , Mumbai, M/s. Tex-Fab Engineers (India) Pvt. Ltd. , Navi Mumbai produced continuous dyeing plants with latest technology for long length of fabric processing which are running successfully in the mills. The following manufacturers have exported their processing machines and earned a good name: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. M/s. Dalal Engineering Pvt. Ltd. , Mumbai M/s. Devrekha Exports (Bhagyarekha Engineers Pvt. Ltd. ), Surat M/s.Dhall Enterprises & Engineers Pvt. Ltd. , Ahmedabad M/s. Harish Enterprise Pvt. Ltd. , Mumbai M/s. Kusters Calico Machinery (P) Ltd. , Vadodara M/s. Lakshmi Card Clothing Mfg. Co. Pvt. Ltd. , Coimbatore M/s. Yamuna Machine Works Pvt. Ltd. , Mumbai These manufacturers are in a position to make many high quality processing machines and compete with foreign manufacturers. Knitting/Hosiery Machine ry Knitting/Hosiery Industry as well as Garment Industry was reserved for the small scale sector. Both these sectors thrived initially with imported second hand machinery.Both Woven Garment and Hosiery Garment put together the total export of the country was only Rs. 5 crore during 1970-71. The exports increased to Rs. 500 crore in 1980 and today it is above Rs. 17,000 crore, thanks to the removal of quota shackles under WTO, implemented by the Government couple of years back. Decentralised character of the Garment industry did not enthuse the TEI to take up the manufacture of knitting machinery. As such this sector remained neglected altogether. Some efforts were made to manufacture knitting machinery by two Companies viz. M/s.Lakshmi Automatic Loom Works Ltd. , Coimbatore and M/s. Himson Textile Engineering Industries Pvt. Ltd. , Surat in late 80s. However, after liberalization of the Industrial Policy in 1991, imported machines became cheaper technology wise than the Indian machi nes due to which obviously there was no demand. Therefore, manufacture of knitting machinery had to be discontinued. Testing & Monitoring Equipments Sector As regards the Testing & Monitoring equipments are concerned, the textile industry was dependent on imported testing and monitoring equipments in 60s and early 70s.The Textile Engineering Industry started developing such testing & monitoring equipments in the late 70s and today all kinds of high quality latest generation testing and monitoring equipments are being manufactured in the country. Some of the items are: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Air Jet Weaving Machine Controller Centralised Computerised Operation of Group of dyeing Machines with Dyeing Data Management Software Package Fully Automatic High Volume Fibre Tester for Length, Strength, Micronaire, Colour, Trash and Maturity module Multi-Channel Pre-Set Yarn Length Indicator & Controller for Winding/Texturising/TFO Machines with Software PackageYarn Evenness T ester Some names of the Companies manufacturing different categories of such instruments are under:†¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Paramount Instruments Pvt. Ltd. Pioneer Instruments & Innovations Premier Evolvics Pvt. Ltd. Semitronik Instruments Tex Lab Industries Thymas Electronic Pvt. Ltd. Growth of the Parts & Accessories Sector The growth of the textile industry along the length and breadth of the country initiated the manufacture of parts and accessories for their machinery. Today, barring a few critical items of equipments and accessories lmost all kinds of parts and accessories of high quality are manufactured in the country. The number of such manufacturers could be around 800. Some of the important items manufactured here are: Blow Room beaters, card clothing, cross-roll attachment for cards, top rollers for high speed draw frame, flyers for speed frames, rings, spindles, inserts, cots and aprons and variable drives for ring frame, production of monitoring data in spinning and weaving online quality checking systems, cloth guides, web straighteners in processing, etc. etc.The TEI not only fulfills the demand for spares from the domestic textile industry but also exports its products to Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Far East, Europe, America and other countries as well. The following table shows data on production of Textile Machinery Parts & Accessories during the last 15 years: Year 1985-86 1990-91 1999-2000 2004-05 2006-07 Rs. in Crores 83. 43 208. 59 288. 79 276. 44 339. 68 Synthetic Yarn and Fabric Processing Machinery Sector Synthetic weaving sector of the textile industry which was scattered in different parts of the country in early 70s became localized in Surat, Bhiwandi, Belgaum.During 80s and 90s the synthetic sector was dominantly established in and around Surat, Gujarat. This simultaneously necessitated the development of synthetic yarn and fabric processing machinery. As a result the Textile Engineering Industry located in and around Surat and Mumbai developed draw texturising machines, draw twisters, two-for-one twisters for filament yarn, zero-twist filament sizing machines, rewinders, precision cone winding machines, etc. etc. More successful manufacturers are M/s. Himson Textile Engineering Industries Pvt. Ltd. , M/s. Aalidhra Textile Engineers Pvt. Ltd. Meera Industries, etc. The synthetic mechanical processing machinery was being imported during 70s and 80s. However, with the development of such machinery indigenously, we are not only catering to the domestic demand but also exporting the same. More and more developments are taking place due to the demand for such machinery. Conclusion Thus the Textile Engineering Industry could develop all types of textile machinery except garment machinery, high speed sophisticated knitting machinery, high speed shuttleless loom (rapier and air jet) and some of the latest generation processing and finishing machinery.The reasons for not developing these mac hinery have been categorically explained in the foregoing paras. What the TEI expects and aspires Under the above background it is felt that there is a real need to develop and manufacture all kinds of textile machinery in the country as per the existing and expected demand. Government should encourage these efforts and should come forward to help this Rs. 3,000- 4,000-crore capacity industry in a comprehensive and systematic manner with short and long term policy measures. It should take note of the developments of textile machinery made by China during the last 10 years.What China did? 1. Forced the foreign manufacturers to start manufacturing their brands in China by not allowing the import of machines from abroad. 2. Financed the domestic manufacturers for setting up the complete plants with large capacities. 3. No second hand machinery import 4. Incentives given for replacement of old machinery with new machinery. Incidentally, it may be mentioned that China had 6 lakhs ordinar y powerlooms/automatic looms prior to 2002. Today, they have shuttleless looms (2, 50, 000 to 3,00,000 approx. ). There may be few ordinary powerlooms in villages and automatic shuttle looms in some corners.No estimate of such looms is available. They have installed large machinery manufacturing capacities and are also exporting all kinds of textile machinery at a cheaper price. Therefore, the following measures are needed to improve the present condition of the Indian TEI A) Policy Measures †¢ †¢ Scheme for Modernisation, technology upgradation and productivity advancement of the Textile Engineering Industry (TEI). The interest remission under the scheme should be 5% with one time 10% Capital Subsidy over & above interest remission (Similar Schemes are available for the Textile Industry).Scheme to support Research & Development. o o †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Suitable capital grants and annual recurring grants for the existing R Centre at IIT, Powai, Mumbai. Suitable capital grants for the R Institutions located at Surat, Ahmedabad, Coimbatore, Delhi, Panipat and Ludhiana willing to take up R for textile machinery. Capital grant for indigenous development of machinery to the new projects as well as existing projects which got delayed due to lack of funds. Tax break/holiday for the manufacture of High Speed Shuttlelesss Looms/High-tech processing and finishing machinery for a period of five years.To allow import of complete sophisticated machinery in CKD/ SKD condition at concessional rate of import duty for a minimum period of three years without any restrictions for manufacturing textile machinery under collaboration/joint venture/import of designs and drawings or by way of reengineering. Ban import of machinery where similar technology machines are available indigenously e. g. shuttleless rapier loom â€Å"crank beat-up type†, water jet Looms (800 rpm) etc. Import of textile machinery in second hand condition sh ould not be allowed under the Technology Upgradation Fund Scheme/20% CLCS Scheme.Ban on import of second hand shuttleless looms with weft insertion rate less than 800 mtrs. per minute. Revival of TIFAC scheme for development of textile machinery with 90% loan component and softer rate of interest of 3%. B) Fiscal Measures †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Reduction of excise duty from 14% to 8% Excise duty on parts, components and accessories of the machines be reduced to 8%. Maintaining the floor level customs duty on textile machinery at 7. 5% without any exemptions Uniform rate of customs duty for complete machinery and raw materials, parts, components & accessoriesUniform treatment to the domestic suppliers of machinery to EPCG license holders. 150% weighted Income Tax deduction for R expenditure made by the Textile Engineering units. If the above measures are taken seriously, the TEI aspires to make available modern machinery and equipment both in quantum and qual ity to meet the future needs of the textile industry at short delivery periods coupled with effective and prompt after-sales-service. About the Author: The author is the Secretary of The Textile Machinery Manufactures Association.